Posts by Jai Ganesh

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Climbing Quotes - I

1. Climbing to the top demands strength, whether it is to the top of Mount Everest or to the top of your career. - A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

2. After climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. - Nelson Mandela

3. Poverty entails fear and stress and sometimes depression. It meets a thousand petty humiliations and hardships. Climbing out of poverty by your own efforts that is something on which to pride yourself but poverty itself is romanticized by fools. - J. K. Rowling

4. There are two things that are more difficult than making an after-dinner speech: climbing a wall which is leaning toward you and kissing a girl who is leaning away from you. - Winston Churchill

5. In the middle of a recession, where we're just climbing out of it, where the economy -unemployment is still at 9.7 percent, the idea of raising taxes and reducing spending is a prescription for disaster. - Joe Biden

6. Management is efficiency in climbing the ladder of success; leadership determines whether the ladder is leaning against the right wall. - Stephen Covey

7. I like to think of Everest as a great mountaineering challenge, and when you've got people just streaming up the mountain - well, many of them are just climbing it to get their name in the paper, really. - Edmund Hillary

8. When you go to the mountains, you see them and you admire them. In a sense, they give you a challenge, and you try to express that challenge by climbing them. - Edmund Hillary.

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: What do you get when you cross the Godfather with a lawyer?
A: An offer you can't understand.
* * *
Q: What's the difference between a lawyer and a vulture?
A: Lawyers accumulate frequent flyer points.
* * *
Q: What is a criminal lawyer?
A: Redundant.
* * *
Q: What's the difference between a good lawyer and a great lawyer?
A: A good lawyer knows the law. A great lawyer knows the judge.
* * *
Q: When lawyers die, why don't vultures them?
A: Even a vulture has taste.
* * *

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2378) Rafflesia arnoldii

Gist

Often called the corpse flower, Rafflesia arnoldi blooms into the single largest individual flower in the world. When it does, it emits a vile aroma, similar to rotten meat, attracting insects, such as flies and beetles, that feed on dead flesh.

Summary

Rafflesia is (genus Rafflesia), genus of about 42 species of parasitic plants native to Southeast Asia. All Rafflesia species parasitize the roots of Tetrastigma vines (family Vitaceae), and their presence is not made known until the striking flowers emerge from the host vine. One species, Rafflesia arnoldii, boasts the largest single flower of any plant.

Taxonomy

Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Angiosperm
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Rafflesiaceae
Genus: Rafflesia

Physical description

Like other members of the family Rafflesiaceae, Rafflesia plants are endoparasitic, meaning that the vegetative organs are so reduced and modified that the plant body exists only as a network of threadlike cellular strands living almost wholly within the tissues of the host plant. There are no green photosynthetic tissues, leaves, roots, or stems in the generally accepted sense, although vestiges of leaves exist in some species as scales. Rafflesia plants are thus obligate parasites, which cannot live without the nutrition provided by the host. Despite the dramatic reduction of most of the plant body, the flowers are well developed and can be extremely large.

Rafflesia flowers are sturdy, typically with five substantial tepals (undifferentiated petals and sepals) surrounding the gender organs in a central cup. Interestingly, individual flowers are unisexual, meaning that pollination can occur only if another flower of the opposite gender is simultaneously blooming. The distinctive flowers are sapromyiophilous, meaning that they are pollinated by carrion-feeding flies, and they have a number of adaptations to attract their unconventional pollinators. Most are reddish or purplish brown and have a mottled pattern that resembles rotting flesh. In addition, they emit a fetid carrion odor during the few days they are blooming, and some species even generate heat to simulate decomposition. The unusual pollen is transferred by means of a sticky liquid that dries on the flies. The resultant fruit is a berry containing sticky seeds thought to be disseminated by fruit-eating rodents.

Major species and conservation

The genus includes the giant R. arnoldii, sometimes known as the corpse flower or monster flower, which produces the largest-known individual flower of any plant species in the world and is found in the forested mountains of Sumatra and Borneo. Its fully developed flower appears aboveground as a thick fleshy five-lobed structure weighing up to 11 kg (24 pounds) and measuring almost one meter (about one yard) across.

Most Rafflesia species are considered rare and, given their complete dependence on Tetrastigma vines, are extremely difficult to cultivate and very vulnerable to extinction. Major threats include the loss of rainforest habitat, due to logging and other land-use changes, and illegal harvest of the flowers for their purported medicinal properties. As of 2023 only one species, R. magnifica of the Philippines, has been formally evaluated, and it is listed as critically endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, though scientists estimate that at least 60 percent of the species are endangered.

Details

Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Malpighiales
Family: Rafflesiaceae
Genus: Rafflesia
Species: R. arnoldii

Binomial name

Rafflesia arnoldii, the corpse flower, or giant padma, is a species of flowering plant in the parasitic genus Rafflesia within the family Rafflesiaceae. It is noted for producing the largest individual flower on Earth. It has a strong and unpleasant odour of decaying flesh. It is native to the rainforests of Sumatra and Borneo. Although there are some plants with larger flowering organs like the titan arum (Amorphophallus titanum) and talipot palm (Corypha umbraculifera), those are technically clusters of many flowers.

Rafflesia arnoldii is one of the three national flowers in Indonesia, the other two being the white jasmine (Jasminum sambac) and moon orchid (Phalaenopsis amabilis). It was officially recognised as a national "rare flower" (Indonesian: puspa langka) in Presidential Decree No. 4 in 1993.

Taxonomy

The first European to find Rafflesia was the ill-fated French explorer Louis Auguste Deschamps. He was a member of a French scientific expedition to Asia and the Pacific, detained by the Dutch for three years on the Indonesian island of Java, where, in 1797, he collected a specimen, which was probably what is now known as R. patma. During the return voyage in 1798, his ship was taken by the British, with whom France was at war, and all his papers and notes were confiscated. Joseph Banks is said to have agitated for the return of the stolen documents, but apparently to no avail; they were lost, turned up for sale around 1860, went to the British Museum of Natural History, where they were promptly lost again. They did not see the light of day until 1954, when they were rediscovered at the Museum. To everyone's surprise, his notes and drawings indicate that he had found and studied the plants long before the British. It is thought quite possible the British purposely hid Deschamps' notes, to claim the 'glory' of 'discovery' for themselves.

In 1818 the British surgeon Joseph Arnold collected a specimen of another Rafflesia species found by a Malay servant in a part of Sumatra, then a British colony called British Bencoolen (now Bengkulu), during an expedition run by the recently appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Bencoolen, Stamford Raffles. Arnold contracted a fever and died soon after the discovery, the preserved material being sent to Banks. Banks passed on the materials, and the honour to study them was given to Robert Brown. The British Museum's resident botanical artist Franz Bauer was commissioned to make illustrations of the new plants. Brown eventually gave a speech before the June 1820 meeting of the Linnean Society of London, where he first introduced the genus and its until then two species. Brown gave the generic name Rafflesia in honour of Raffles. Bauer completed his pictures some time in mid-1821, but the actual article on the subject continued to languish.

William Jack, Arnold's successor in the Sumatran Bencoolen colony, recollected the plant and was the first to officially describe the new species under the name R. titan in 1820. It is thought quite likely that Jack rushed the name to publication because he feared that the French might publish what they knew of the species, and thus rob the British of potential 'glory'. Apparently aware of Jack's work, Brown finally had the article published in the Transactions of the Linnean Society a year later, formally introducing the name R. arnoldii (he ignores Jack's work in his article).

Because Jack's name has priority, R. arnoldii should technically be a synonym of R. titan, but at least in Britain, it was common at the time to recognise the names introduced by well-regarded scientists such as Brown, over what should taxonomically be the correct name. This was pointed out by the Dutch Rafflesia expert Willem Meijer in his monographic addition to the book series Flora Malesiana in 1997. Instead of sinking R. arnoldii into synonymy, however, he declared that the name R. titan was "incompletely known": the plant material used by Jack to describe the plant has been lost.

In 1999, the British botanical historian David Mabberley, in response to Meijer's findings, attempted to rescue Brown's names from synonymy. This is known as 'conservation' in taxonomy, and normally this requires making a formal proposal to the committee of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). Mabberley thought he found a loophole around such a formal review by noting that while Brown was notoriously slow to get his papers published, he often had a handful of pre-print pages privately printed to exchange with other botanists: one of these pre-prints had been recently bought by the Hortus Botanicus Leiden, and it was dated April 1821. Mabberley thus proposed that this document be considered the official effective publication, stating this would invalidate Jack's earlier name. For some reason Mabberley uses 1821, a few months after Brown's pre-print, as the date of Jack's publication, instead of the 1820 publication date in Singapore. Confusingly, the record in the International Plant Names Index (IPNI) still has yet another date, "1823?", as it was in the Index Kewensis before Meijer's 1997 work. Mabberley's proposals regarding Brown's name were accepted by institutions, such as the Index Kewensis.

Mabberley also pointed out that the genus Rafflesia was thus first validated by an anonymous report on the meeting published in the Annals of Philosophy in September 1820 (the name was technically an unpublished nomen nudum until this publication). Mabberley claimed the author was Samuel Frederick Gray. However, as that is nowhere stated in the Annals, per Article 46.8 of the code of ICBN, Mabberley was wrong to formally ascribe the validation to Gray. The validation of the name was thus attributed to one Thomas Thomson, the editor of the Annals in 1820, by the IPNI. Mabberley admitted his error in 2017. This Thomson was not the botanist Thomas Thomson, who was three years old in 1820, but his identically named father, a chemist, and Rafflesia is thus the only botanical taxon this man ever published.

Errata

An old Kew webpage claimed that Sophia Hull was present when the specimen was collected and finished the colour drawing that Arnold had started of the plant. It also stated that Brown had originally wanted to call the plant genus Arnoldii.

Regional names

It is called kerubut in Sumatra. In the kecamatan ('district') of Pandam Gadang, it is known as cendawan biriang in the Minangkabau language.

Description

Although Rafflesia is a vascular plant, it lacks any observable leaves, stems or even roots, and does not have chlorophyll. It lives as a holoparasite on vines of the genus Tetrastigma, most commonly T. angustifolium. Similar to fungi, individuals grow as a mass of thread-like strands of tissue completely embedded within and in intimate contact with surrounding host cells from which nutrients and water are obtained. It can only be seen outside the host plant when it is ready to reproduce; the only part of Rafflesia that is identifiable as distinctly plant-like are the flowers, though even these are unusual since they attain massive proportions, are reddish-brown with white spots, and stink of rotting flesh. According to Sandved, the flower opens with a hissing sound.

The flower of Rafflesia arnoldii grows to a diameter of around 1 m (3 ft 3 in),[2] and weighs up to 11 kg (24 lb). According to the Mongabay institution, the single largest R. arnoldii to be measured was 1.14 m (3 ft 9 in) in width. These flowers emerge from very large, cabbage-like, maroon or dark brown buds typically about 30 cm (12 in) wide, but the largest (and the largest flower bud ever recorded) found at Mount Sago, Sumatra in May 1956 was 43 cm (17 in) in diameter. Indonesian researchers often refer to the bud as a 'knop' (knob). According to one source, these buds require 21 months to form. Yet the flowers remain open for only four days.

The plant is native to the rainforest regions of Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand.

Additional Information

Often called the corpse flower, Rafflesia arnoldi blooms into the single largest individual flower in the world.

When it does, it emits a vile aroma, similar to rotten meat, attracting insects, such as flies and beetles, that feed on dead flesh.

These flesh-loving creatures pollinate the flower, allowing it to spread through the rainforests of Borneo.

Due to the incredibly specific requirements of the plant, almost no botanical gardens have a Rafflesia arnoldi in cultivation, including Kew.

Rafflesia arnoldi has no leaves, stems or roots, and is a parasitic plant that grows on vines in the genus Tetrastigma.

Plant description

Rafflesia arnoldi lives inside Tetrastigma vines as a mass of fleshy strands which absorb water and nutrients from the host. It grows out of the host plant's bark as brown, cabbage-like buds called knops which bloom over several days. The flowers have five lobes, are reddish-brown with white spots, and grow up to 1m across. They appear for a week, releasing a scent of rotting meat.

Cultural

The flower is an iconic symbol of southeast Asian rainforest, and has been depicted on several Indonesian postage stamps.

Fleur-Rafflesia-Borneo-Malaisie-Rafflesia-Flower-Borneo-Malaysia-00002-1536x1154.jpg

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

2231) Drew Weissman

Gist:

Work

A vaccine prevents diseases by stimulating the body's immune system to develop a defense against the infectious agent. One type of vaccine uses mRNA, which transfers genetic information from DNA to stimulate protein production. In 2005, Drew Weissman and Katalin Karikó discovered that certain modifications of the building blocks of RNA prevented unwanted inflammatory reactions and increased the production of desired proteins. The discovery laid the foundation for effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 during the pandemic that began in early 2020.

Summary

Drew Weissman (born September 7, 1959, Lexington, Massachusetts, U.S.) is an American immunologist whose groundbreaking research into RNA (ribonucleic acid) opened the path to the development of RNA therapeutics, most notably the generation of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines. In the late 1990s and early 2000s Weissman and his colleague the Hungarian-born immunologist Katalin Karikó discovered that mRNA can induce immune responses against specific disease-causing agents. They further found that by introducing changes in mRNA nucleosides (the structural subunits of RNA), it was possible to modify these immune responses. The team’s discoveries enabled the development in 2021 of the first mRNA vaccines, which were targeted against SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus that caused the COVID-19 pandemic. For their breakthrough work, Weissman and Karikó were awarded the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Early life and education

Weissman was raised in Lexington, Massachusetts, where he enjoyed sports in his youth, particularly martial arts. He was also interested in science from a young age. His father was an engineer, and, while in high school, Weissman worked for his father’s company, which specialized in making optical mirrors for use in satellites.

He later studied biochemistry and enzymology at Brandeis University, from which he graduated with a bachelor’s degree and a master’s degree in 1981. He then attended Boston University, where he earned an M.D. degree and a Ph.D. in immunology and microbiology in 1987. In 1990, after completing a residency in internal medicine at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center in Boston, Weissman accepted a fellowship to work at the National Institutes of Health in Maryland. There he carried out research under the guidance of American immunologist Anthony Fauci.

mRNA vaccines

In 1997 Weissman joined the faculty of the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn) in Philadelphia. He began carrying out studies in dendritic cells, which serve a key role in immune surveillance, and increasingly focused his efforts on the development of mRNA therapeutics, particularly in the areas of vaccine development and gene therapy. Not long after starting at Penn, Weissman met Karikó, who shared an interest in finding ways to leverage mRNA to stimulate the body to develop immunity against viral pathogens. Karikó began generating mRNA for Weissman’s research, and the two soon began collaborating on mRNA vaccine studies.

Weissman and Karikó quickly discovered in their initial studies that mRNA is highly immunogenic, provoking counterproductive immune responses. However, Karikó had observed that another type of RNA, transfer RNA (tRNA), did not have the same immunogenic effects, which led Weissman and Karikó to experiment with modified nucleosides. In 2005 they reported a major breakthrough: by introducing modified nucleosides, such as pseudouridine, into mRNA, it was possible to generate an mRNA molecule with the ability to evade immediate immune detection. Consequently, the modified mRNA remained active longer than unmodified mRNA, allowing it to enter cells and trigger the production of proteins with the ability to resist disease. The technology became known as non-immunogenic, nucleoside-modified RNA, which Weissman and Karikó patented in 2005.

The promise of non-immunogenic, nucleoside-modified RNA inspired Weissman and Karikó to start a company called RNARx. They successfully licensed the technology to the biotechnology companies Moderna and BioNTech. In 2021, under pressure during the COVID-19 pandemic to develop a vaccine that could help prevent or reduce the severity of infection with SARS-CoV-2, Moderna and a joint effort by the biopharmaceutical company Pfizer and BioNTech independently accelerated research into using mRNA to generate COVID-19 vaccines. Shortly after obtaining the genetic code of SARS-CoV-2, scientists at Moderna and Pfizer-BioNTech separately prepared experimental mRNA vaccines.

Other mRNA therapeutics

Weissman also carried out extensive research into other mRNA therapeutics. For example, he was involved in critical studies in collaboration with other researchers on the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) as a mechanism for mRNA delivery to specific cells. In studies in mice and monkeys, he and his colleagues were among the first to show that a modified mRNA-LNP vaccine could induce immune defense against infection with Zika virus. His research team further applied mRNA-LNP technology to gene therapy for the treatment of diseases such as cystic fibrosis and certain forms of liver disease and investigated the development of mRNA vaccines for a variety of other diseases, including vaccines against herpes simplex, hepatitis C, and norovirus. Weissman was also involved in the development of a pan-coronavirus vaccine with the potential to protect against every variant of coronavirus that could emerge in the future.

Awards and honors

In addition to the Nobel Prize, Weissman received numerous other honors and awards during his career. Notably, together with Karikó, he was a recipient of the Rosenstiel Award (2020), the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (2021), and the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award (2021). In 2022 he became an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Details

Drew Weissman (born September 7, 1959) is an American physician and immunologist known for his contributions to RNA biology. Weissman is the inaugural Roberts Family Professor in Vaccine Research, director of the Penn Institute for RNA Innovation, and professor of medicine at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn).

Weissman's work underlies the development of mRNA vaccines, the best known of which are those for COVID-19 produced by BioNTech/Pfizer and Moderna. With biochemist Katalin Karikó, Weissman received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2023 "for their discoveries concerning nucleoside base modifications that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19". Weissman has been a recipient and co-recipient of numerous awards, also including the prestigious Lasker–DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award. In 2022, he was elected to the National Academy of Medicine and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Early life and education

Weissman was born in Lexington, Massachusetts, on September 7, 1959, to Hal and Adele Weissman. Hal is Jewish and Adele is Italian. While his mother did not convert to Judaism, he grew up celebrating all the Jewish holidays. He grew up in Lexington and attended Lexington High School, graduating in 1977.

Weissman received his B.A. and M.A. degrees from Brandeis University in 1981, where he majored in biochemistry and enzymology and he worked in the lab of Gerald Fasman. He performed his graduate work in immunology and microbiology to receive his M.D. and Ph.D. in 1987 at Boston University. Afterward, Weissman did a residency at Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, followed by a fellowship at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), under the supervision of Anthony Fauci, then director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

Career

In 1997, Weissman moved to the University of Pennsylvania to start his laboratory in order to study RNA and innate immune system biology. He is now the Roberts Family Professor in Vaccine Research at the university.

At the university, Weissman, an immunologist studying vaccines, met his future colleague and collaborator Katalin Karikó at a photocopier, where they sympathized about the lack of funding for RNA research. At the time, Karikó had been trying RNA therapy on cerebral diseases and strokes. Immunologist Weissman began collaborating with biochemist Karikó, who switched her focus to the application of RNA technology to vaccines. Weissman’s support was critical in helping Karikó to continue and extend her research. Slowly they began to move the technology forward, solving problems one at a time. On the difficulty of gaining funding and recognition for their work, Weissman has commented "We had to fight the entire way."

One of the major scientific obstacles they faced was that the RNA caused unwanted immune and inflammatory reactions as adverse side effects. Beginning in 2005, they published several landmark studies that used synthetic nucleosides to modify the RNA to prevent its degradation by the body. This breakthrough laid the groundwork for the use of RNA therapeutics, though the study received little attention at the time.

Weissman and Karikó overcame another major obstacle by developing a delivery technique to package the mRNA in lipid nanoparticles, a novel pharmaceutical drug delivery system for mRNA that protects the fragile molecule until it can reach the desired area of the body. They demonstrated the effectiveness of the delivery system in animals.

In 2006, Weissman and Karikó co-founded RNARx. Their objective was to develop novel RNA therapies. In 2020 their modified RNA technology became the key foundational component of the Pfizer/BioNTech and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines, which were deployed worldwide against the COVID-19 pandemic.

Weissman has been collaborating with scientists at Thailand's Chulalongkorn University, most recently to develop and provide COVID-19 vaccines for the country and neighboring low and middle income countries that may not have immediate access to the vaccine.

Weissman's laboratory continues to actively research the use of mRNA for next-generation vaccines, gene editing, and mRNA therapeutics. Projects include development of a pan coronavirus vaccines, gene editing technology to enable genes that produce missing antibodies, and treatments for acute inflammatory conditions. Weissman hopes that mRNA technology can be used to develop vaccines against influenza, herpes, and HIV.

Recognition

For their mRNA-related work, Weissman and Karikó were awarded the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, the 2020 Rosenstiel Award, the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize, the Albany Medical Center Prize, the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award, and the BBVA Foundation Frontiers of Knowledge Award (also with Robert S. Langer).

Weissman obtained a honorary degree by the Drexel University College of Medicine. In 2021, he was awarded the Princess of Asturias Award in the category for Scientific Research. For 2022 he was awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Life Sciences, the Jessie Stevenson Kovalenko Medal of the NAS jointly with Katalin Karikó and also the Japan Prize Also in 2022 he received the Robert Koch Prize and the Tang Prize in Biopharmaceutical Science, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, and was elected to the National Academy of Medicine and American Academy of Arts and Sciences. In 2023 he received the Harvey Prize of the Technion in Israel (awarded for the year 2021).

In 2022, Weissman and Karikó were awarded the Novo Nordisk Prize.

According to a report in The Washington Post, Weissman gets fan mail from people all over the world, thanking him for his work that made the COVID-19 vaccine possible — one said "You've made hugs and closeness possible again" — and asking him for a picture or his autograph.

His name was included with Kariko in Time 2024 list of influential people in health.

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#2457. What does the medical term Myocarditis mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#9724.

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#6230.

Jai Ganesh · Exercises

Hi,

Well done!

2571.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2377) Chimpanzee

Gist

Chimpanzees are highly intelligent primates, demonstrating problem-solving skills, tool use, complex communication, and social intelligence. They can learn to use symbols, understand basic commands, and even display empathy and cultural behaviors. While their brains are smaller than humans, they exhibit remarkable cognitive abilities within their own context.

While chimpanzees can form affectionate bonds and exhibit friendly behavior, their unpredictability means that they can also be dangerous. Their wild instincts, intelligence, and emotional depth make them fascinating, but they also deserve respect. Chimpanzee are not pets and should not be treated as such.

Summary

The chimpanzee, also simply known as the chimp, is a species of great ape native to the forests and savannahs of tropical Africa. It has four confirmed subspecies and a fifth proposed one. When its close relative the bonobo was more commonly known as the pygmy chimpanzee, this species was often called the common chimpanzee or the robust chimpanzee. The chimpanzee and the bonobo are the only species in the genus Pan. Evidence from fossils and DNA sequencing shows that Pan is a sister taxon to the human lineage and is thus humans' closest living relative.

The chimpanzee is covered in coarse black hair but has a bare face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands, and soles of the feet. It is larger and more robust than the bonobo, weighing 40–70 kg (88–154 lb) for males and 27–50 kg (60–110 lb) for females and standing 150 cm (4 ft 11 in).

The chimpanzee lives in groups that range in size from 15 to 150 members, although individuals travel and forage in much smaller groups during the day. The species lives in a strict male-dominated hierarchy, where disputes are generally settled without the need for violence. Nearly all chimpanzee populations have been recorded using tools, modifying sticks, rocks, grass and leaves and using them for hunting and acquiring honey, termites, ants, nuts and water. The species has also been found creating sharpened sticks to spear small mammals. Its gestation period is eight months. The infant is weaned at about three years old but usually maintains a close relationship with its mother for several years more.

The chimpanzee is listed on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species. Between 170,000 and 300,000 individuals are estimated across its range. The biggest threats to the chimpanzee are habitat loss, poaching, and disease. Chimpanzees appear in Western popular culture as stereotyped clown-figures and have featured in entertainments such as chimpanzees' tea parties, circus acts and stage shows. Although chimpanzees have been kept as pets, their strength, aggressiveness, and unpredictability makes them dangerous in this role. Some hundreds have been kept in laboratories for research, especially in the United States. Many attempts have been made to teach languages such as American Sign Language to chimpanzees, with limited success.

Details

A chimpanzee, (Pan troglodytes), is a species of ape that, along with the bonobo, is most closely related to humans. Chimpanzees inhabit tropical forests and savannas of equatorial Africa from Senegal in the west to Lake Albert and northwestern Tanzania in the east. Individuals vary considerably in size and appearance, but chimpanzees stand approximately 1–1.7 metres (3–5.5 feet) tall when erect and weigh about 32–60 kg (70–130 pounds). Males tend to be larger and more robust than females. Chimpanzees are covered by a coat of brown or black hair, but their faces are bare except for a short white beard. Skin colour is generally white except for the face, hands, and feet, which are black. The faces of younger animals may be pinkish or whitish. Among older males and females, the forehead often becomes bald and the back becomes gray.

Natural history

Chimpanzees awaken at dawn, and their day is spent both in the trees and on the ground. After a lengthy midday rest, late afternoon is usually the most intensive feeding period. In the trees, where most feeding takes place, chimps use their hands and feet to move about. They also leap and swing by their arms (brachiate) skillfully from branch to branch. Movement over any significant distance usually takes place on the ground. Though able to walk upright, chimpanzees more often move about on all fours, leaning forward on the knuckles of their hands (knuckle walking). At night they usually sleep in the trees in nests they build of branches and leaves. Chimpanzees are unable to swim, but they will wade in water. The chimpanzee diet is primarily vegetarian and consists of more than 300 different items, mostly fruits, berries, leaves, blossoms, and seeds but also bird eggs and chicks, many insects, and occasionally carrion. Chimpanzees also hunt, both alone and in groups, stalking and killing various mammals such as monkeys, duikers, bushbucks, and wild pigs. They also appear to use certain plants medicinally to cure diseases and expel intestinal parasites.

The female chimpanzee bears a single young at any time of year after a gestation period of about eight months. The newborn weighs about 1.8 kg (about 4 pounds), is almost helpless, and clings to the fur of the mother’s belly as she moves. From about 6 months to 2 years, the youngster rides on the mother’s back. Weaning takes place at about 5 years. Males are considered adults at 16 years of age, and females usually begin to reproduce at about 13 years, but often only two offspring survive during her lifetime. The longevity of chimps is about 45 years in the wild and 58 in captivity; however, older individuals have been documented. For example, Cheetah the chimpanzee, an animal actor from the Tarzan movies of the 1930s and ’40s, was reported to have lived approximately 80 years.

Conservation status

Chimpanzees are an endangered species; their population in the wild has been reduced by hunting (primarily for meat), destruction of habitat from logging or farming, and commercial exportation for use in zoos and research laboratories. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) noted that, despite having one of the largest geographic ranges of the great apes, chimpanzee populations have fallen significantly since the 1980s. Lions and leopards also prey upon chimpanzees.

Social behaviour

Chimpanzees are lively animals with more extraverted dispositions than either gorillas or orangutans. They are highly social and live in loose and flexible groups known as communities, or unit groups, that are based on associations between adult males within a home range, or territory. Home ranges of forest-dwelling communities can be as small as a few square kilometres, but home ranges covering hundreds of square kilometres are known among savanna communities. A community can number from 20 or fewer to well over 100 members. Each consists of several subgroups of varying size and unstable composition. Social dominance exists, with adult males being dominant over adult females and adolescent males. Within a community, there are twice or three times as many adult females as adult males; the number of adults is about equal to the number of immature individuals. Communities usually divide into subgroups called parties, which vary widely in size. The dominance hierarchy among male chimpanzees is very fluid; individuals associate with each other and join and leave different subgroups with complete freedom. The dominant (alpha) male of a group can monopolize ovulating females through possessive behaviour. On the other hand, gang attack by subordinate males can expel an alpha male. Males spend all of their lives in the community they are born in, but occasionally a juvenile male may transfer to another community with his mother. In contrast to males, most females leave their group of birth to join a neighbouring group when they mature at around age 11. Female chimpanzees spend most of their time with their young or with other females. Those with dependent offspring are more likely to range alone or in small parties within narrow “core areas.” Females have been known to form coalitions against a bullying adult male or newly immigrated female.

Relations between different chimp communities tend to be hostile. Intruders on a group’s home range may be attacked, and adult males engage in boundary patrol. On rare occasions, a group may invade a neighbouring territory that is much smaller in size, and fatalities among the smaller group result. Infanticide and cannibalism by adult males, and to a lesser extent by adult females, have been observed. Victimized infants are not only those of neighbouring groups but also those born to newly immigrated females. Between- and within-group competition among individuals of the same gender is the likely cause of such violence. Sometimes a male and female will form a consortship, engaging in exclusive mating relationships by leaving other members of the group and staying in the periphery of the group range. This strategy, however, brings increased risk of attack by neighbouring groups.

Chimpanzees exhibit complex social strategies such as cooperation in combat and the cultivation of coalitions and alliances via ranging together, reciprocal grooming, and the sharing of meat (sometimes in exchange for mating opportunities). An alpha male, for instance, may interfere with his rival in grooming with a third party because such a coalition might jeopardize the alpha’s status. On the other hand, the third party might show strategic opportunism in such a situation, since his assistance to either side could determine which of his superiors prevails. Chimpanzees, therefore, appear to have some concept of “trade.” They console, reconcile, and retaliate during fighting and so share emotions and aspects of psychology similar to those found in humans: self-recognition, curiosity, sympathy, grief, and attribution. Although chimps take care of orphaned infants, they also tease handicapped individuals, conceal information that would bring disadvantage to themselves, and manipulate others for their own advantage by expressing deceptive postures, gestures, and facial expressions.

Intelligence

Chimpanzees are highly intelligent and are able to solve many kinds of problems posed to them by human trainers and experimenters. A number of researchers have taught chimpanzees to use sign language or languages based on the display of tokens or pictorial symbols. The implications of these language studies have been contested, however. Critics charge that apes have not acquired true language in the sense of understanding “words” as abstract symbols that can be combined in meaningful new ways. Other investigators maintain that more recent language training has resulted in the chimpanzees’ acquiring a true recognition of “words” as abstractions that can be applied in novel contexts.

Communication between chimps in the wild takes the form of facial expressions, gestures, and a large array of vocalizations, including screams, hoots, grunts, and roars. Males display excitement by standing erect, stamping or swaying, and letting out a chorus of screams. Chimps use louder calls and gestures for long-distance communication (such as drumming on tree buttresses) and quieter calls and facial expressions for short-distance communication. Similarities to human laughter and smiling might be seen in their “play panting” and grinning, respectively.

Various tools are used in several contexts. Chimpanzees “fish” for termites and ants with probes made of grass stalks, vines, branches, peeled bark, and midribs of leaves. They crack hard nuts open by using stones, roots, and wood as hammers or anvils, and they use “leafy sponges” (a handful of folded leaves or moss) to drink water. Branches and leaves are detached and displayed during courtship. In threat displays, chimps throw rocks and drag and throw branches. Sticks are used to inspect dead pythons or other unfamiliar objects that might be dangerous. Leaves are used hygienically in wiping the mouth or other soiled body parts. Chimpanzees also use different tools in succession as a “tool set.” For example, chimpanzees of the Congo basin first dig into termite mounds with a stout stick and then fish for individual termites with a long, slender wand. Tools are also used in combination as “tool composites.” Chimpanzees in the Guinea region push leafy sponges into hollows of trees containing water and then withdraw the wet sponges by using sticks. Chimps thus differ locally in their repertoire of tool use, with younger animals acquiring tool-using behaviours from their elders. Such cultural differences are also seen in food items consumed and in gestural communication. Chimpanzees indeed possess culture when it is defined as the transmission of information from generation to generation via social learning shared by most members of a single age or gender class in a given group.

Chimpanzees’ intelligence, responsiveness, and exuberance have made them ideal nonhuman subjects for psychological, medical, and biological experiments. Young chimpanzees can become very attached to their human trainers, and their expressions of feeling resemble those of humans more closely than any other animal.

Taxonomy

Genetic analysis suggests that the lineages leading to modern humans and chimpanzees diverged from each other between 6.5 million and 9.3 million years ago and that at least 98 percent of the human and chimpanzee genomes are identical. Chimpanzees are classified taxonomically as a single species, Pan troglodytes. (The so-called pygmy chimpanzee, or bonobo, is a distinct and separate species, P. paniscus, that diverged from chimpanzees about 1.7 million years ago.) Four subspecies of P. troglodytes are recognized: the tschego, or Central African chimpanzee (P. troglodytes troglodytes), also known as the common chimpanzee in continental Europe; the West African, or masked, chimpanzee (P. troglodytes verus), known as the common chimpanzee in Great Britain; the East African, or long-haired, chimpanzee (P. troglodytes schweinfurthii); and the Nigerian-Cameroon chimpanzee (P. troglodytes ellioti, which was formerly classified as P. troglodytes vellerosus).

Additional Information

Like us, chimps are highly social animals, care for their offspring for years and can live to be over 50. In fact, chimpanzees are our closest cousins; we share about 98% of our genes.

In their habitat in the forests of Central Africa, chimpanzees spend most of their days in the treetops. When they do come down to earth, chimps usually travel on all fours, though they can walk on their legs like humans for as far as a mile. They use sticks to fish termites out of mounds and bunches of leaves to sop up drinking water.

050825_jb_chimp-chatter_feat.jpg?resize=1380%2C776&ssl=1

Jai Ganesh · Maths Is Fun - Suggestions and Comments

I forgot to mention; zetafunc, Moderator is Brilliant, just like Rod, and Bob!

Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Ytterbium

Gist

Ytterbium (Yb) is a soft, silver-colored chemical element (atomic number 70) belonging to the rare earth metals, named after the Swedish town of Ytterby where it was discovered. It's used in electronics as a dopant for phosphors and in ceramic capacitors, as a pressure sensor, and in lasers. Ytterbium is known for its low density and melting/boiling points compared to other lanthanides and forms stable compounds in its +3 oxidation state, though it also has a +2 state.

Ytterbium is beginning to find a variety of uses, such as in memory devices and tuneable lasers. It can also be used as an industrial catalyst and is increasingly being used to replace other catalysts considered to be too toxic and polluting.

Summary

Ytterbium is a chemical element; it has symbol Yb and atomic number 70. It is a metal, the fourteenth and penultimate element in the lanthanide series, which is the basis of the relative stability of its +2 oxidation state. Like the other lanthanides, its most common oxidation state is +3, as in its oxide, halides, and other compounds. In aqueous solution, like compounds of other late lanthanides, soluble ytterbium compounds form complexes with nine water molecules. Because of its closed-shell electron configuration, its density, melting point and boiling point are much lower than those of most other lanthanides.

In 1878, Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac separated from the rare earth "erbia", another independent component, which he called "ytterbia", for Ytterby, the village in Sweden near where he found the new component of erbium. He suspected that ytterbia was a compound of a new element that he called "ytterbium". Four elements were named after the village, the others being yttrium, terbium, and erbium. In 1907, the new earth "lutecia" was separated from ytterbia, from which the element "lutecium", now lutetium, was extracted by Georges Urbain, Carl Auer von Welsbach, and Charles James. After some discussion, Marignac's name "ytterbium" was retained. A relatively pure sample of the metal was first obtained in 1953. At present, ytterbium is mainly used as a dopant of stainless steel or active laser media, and less often as a gamma ray source.

Natural ytterbium is a mixture of seven stable isotopes, which altogether are present at an average concentration of 0.3 parts per million in the Earth's crust. This element is mined in China, the United States, Brazil, and India in form of the minerals monazite, euxenite, and xenotime. The ytterbium concentration is low because it is found only among many other rare-earth elements. It is among the least abundant. Once extracted and prepared, ytterbium is somewhat hazardous as an eye and skin irritant. The metal is a fire and explosion hazard.

Details

Ytterbium (Yb), chemical element, is a rare-earth metal of the lanthanide series of the periodic table.

Ytterbium is the most volatile rare-earth metal. It is a soft, malleable silvery metal that will tarnish slightly when stored in air and therefore should be stored in vacuum or in an inert atmosphere when long storage time is required. It slowly oxidizes in air, forming Yb2O3; the metal is readily dissolved in diluted acids—except hydrofluoric acid (HF), in which a protective layer of YbF3 forms on the surface and impedes further chemical reaction. Ytterbium is weakly paramagnetic, having the lowest magnetic susceptibility of all the rare-earth metals.

The first concentrate of ytterbium was obtained in 1878 by Swiss chemist Jean-Charles Galissard de Marignac and named by him for the town of Ytterby, Sweden, where it (and the first discovered rare-earth element, yttrium) was found. French chemist Georges Urbain and Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach independently demonstrated in 1907–08 that Marignac’s earth was composed of two oxides, which Urbain called neoytterbia and lutetia. The elements are now known as ytterbium and lutetium. Ytterbium is among the less-abundant rare earths. It occurs in minute amounts in many rare-earth minerals such as laterite clays, xenotime, and euxenite and is found in products of nuclear fission as well.

Natural ytterbium consists of seven stable isotopes: ytterbium-174 (32.0 percent), ytterbium-172 (21.7 percent), ytterbium-173 (16.1 percent), ytterbium-171 (14.1 percent), ytterbium-176 (13 percent), ytterbium-170 (3 percent), and ytterbium-168 (0.1 percent). Not counting nuclear isomers, a total of 27 radioactive isotopes of Yb ranging in mass from 148 to 181 with half-lives ranging from 409 milliseconds (ytterbium-154) to 32.018 days (ytterbium-169) have been characterized.

Ytterbium is separated from the other rare-earth elements by solvent-solvent extraction or ion-exchange techniques. The elemental metal is prepared by the metallothermic reduction of its oxide, Yb2O3, with lanthanum metal, followed by a vacuum distillation to further purify the metal. Ytterbium exists in three allotropic (structural) forms. The α-phase, which exists below 7 °C (45 °F), is close-packed hexagonal with a = 3.8799 Å and c = 6.3859 Å at room temperature. The β-phase is face-centred cubic with a = 5.4848 Å, and it is the normal structure at room temperature. The γ-phase is body-centred cubic with a = 4.44 Å at 763 °C (1,405 °F). Ytterbium has the lowest boiling point of the rare-earth metals.

The element has little practical use beyond research. Radioactive 169Yb isotope is a source of hard X-rays useful in portable radiographic devices. It is used as a dopant in a variety of optical materials, including lenses. The metal is used in pressure sensors because its electrical resistivity is strongly pressure-dependent.

Ytterbium, like europium, is a divalent metal. A compound of ytterbium in the +2 oxidation state was first prepared in 1929 by W.K. Klemm and W. Schuth, who reduced ytterbium trichloride, YbCl3, to ytterbium dichloride, YbCl2, with hydrogen. The ion Yb2+ has also been produced by electrolytic reduction or treatment of a Yb3+ salt with sodium amalgam. The element forms a series of pale green Yb2+ salts such as ytterbium sulfate, dibromide, hydroxide, and carbonate. The pale green ytterbium ion Yb2+ is unstable in aqueous solution and reduces water readily, liberating hydrogen; it is less stable than the comparable europium ion, Eu2+, and more stable than the samarium ion Sm2+. In its predominant +3 oxidation state, ytterbium forms a series of white salts including the trisulfate and the trinitrate; the sesquioxide is also white.

Element Properties

atomic number : 70
atomic weight : 173.04
melting point : 819 °C (1,506 °F)
boiling point : 1,196 °C (2,185 °F)
specific gravity : 6.966 (24 °C, or 75 °F)
oxidation states : +2, +3.

Additional Information:

Appearance

A soft, silvery metal. It slowly oxidises in air, forming a protective surface layer.

Uses

Ytterbium is beginning to find a variety of uses, such as in memory devices and tuneable lasers. It can also be used as an industrial catalyst and is increasingly being used to replace other catalysts considered to be too toxic and polluting.

Biological role

Ytterbium has no known biological role. It has low toxicity.

Natural abundance

In common with many lanthanide elements, ytterbium is found principally in the mineral monazite. It can be extracted by ion exchange and solvent extraction.

Bohr-model-of-Ytterbium-Yb-min.png?resize=387%2C414&ssl=1

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Climb Quotes - IV

1. Our work for human dignity is often lonely, and almost always an uphill climb. At times, our efforts are misunderstood, and we are mistaken for the enemy. There has been a clear erosion of respect for U.N. blue and our impartiality. - Ban Ki-moon

2. Nobody climbs mountains for scientific reasons. Science is used to raise money for the expeditions, but you really climb for the hell of it. - Edmund Hillary

3. One of the best ways to see tree flowers is to climb one of the tallest trees and to get into close, tingling touch with them, and then look broad. - John Muir

4. Thanks to evolution, our bodies have powerful ways to ward off illness and infection and enable us to live long and healthy lives. Why, then, do health costs continue to climb at unsustainable and frightening rates? - David Suzuki

5. I'm not the kind of person who's going to look at the top of a mountain and go, 'Oh, look at that! That's lovely. That's lovely, that top of that mountain.' I'm the kind of person who's going to go, 'Oh, my God! That's so lovely! Let's go climb up it!' - Kate Winslet

6. No minority should climb all over the majority. - Lech Walesa

7. I have enjoyed great satisfaction from my climb of Everest and my trips to the poles. But there's no doubt that my most worthwhile things have been the building of schools and medical clinics. - Edmund Hillary

8. Weight-gain brings with it a number of health issues, but at some point you just realise that you want to live longer, eat healthier. You don't want to be out of breath when you climb a flight of stairs. - Masaba Gupta.

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: What do you call a lawyer with an I.Q. of 30?
A: A lawyer.
* * *
Q: What do you call a lawyer with an I.Q. of 80?
A: Your honor.
* * *
Q: What do you get when you cross a librarian with a lawyer?
A: All the information you need, but you can’t understand a word of it.
* * *
Q: What do honest lawyers and UFOs have in common?
A: You always hear about them, but you never see them.
* * *
Q: What's the difference between a bankrupt attorney and a pigeon?
A: The pigeon can still make a deposit on a Mercedes.
* * *

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#10539. What does the term in Geography Biosphere mean?

#10540. What does the term in Geography Blackwater river mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#5729. What does the adjective fraught mean?

#5730. What does the verb (used without object) fraternize mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#2456. In which part of the human body is Hypopyon associated?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#9723.

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#6229.

Jai Ganesh · Exercises

Hi,

2570.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

2230) Katalin Karikó

Gist:

Work

A vaccine prevents diseases by stimulating the body's immune system to develop a defense against the infectious agent. One type of vaccine uses mRNA, which transfers genetic information from DNA to stimulate protein production. In 2005 Katalin Karikó and Drew Weissman discovered that certain modifications of the building blocks of RNA prevented unwanted inflammatory reactions and increased the production of desired proteins. The discovery laid the foundation for effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19 during the pandemic that began in early 2020.

Summary

Katalin Karikó (born January 17, 1955, Kisújszállás, Hungary) is a Hungarian-born biochemist known for her pioneering research into RNA (ribonucleic acid) therapeutics, particularly the development of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines. Karikó’s investigation into the ability of mRNA nucleosides (structural subunits of nucleic acids) to trigger immune responses against specific pathogens (disease-causing agents) greatly facilitated the development of the first mRNA vaccines—a breakthrough that occurred in 2021, during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. For their discoveries relating to mRNA nucleosides, which opened the way to the development of effective COVID-19 mRNA vaccines, Karikó and her colleague American immunologist Drew Weissman were awarded the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.

Education and early career

Karikó grew up in a small village in Hungary, where from an early age she expressed an interest in nature and excelled academically in science. In 1978, after graduating with a doctoral degree from the University of Szeged, she accepted a position at the Biological Research Centre (BRC), Szeged. There she studied the antiviral activity of short segments of RNA and began her investigations of modified nucleosides, a type of synthetic mRNA in which specific nucleosides have been altered or replaced, typically with either synthetic nucleosides or naturally modified nucleosides.

In 1985, with no further funding to support her research at the BRC, Karikó moved to the United States, where she accepted a position as a postdoctoral researcher at Temple University in Philadelphia. Four years later she took a position at the University of Pennsylvania (Penn). There, with American cardiologist Elliot Barnathan, she demonstrated that mRNA, when inserted into cells, could be used to direct the production of new proteins. The breakthrough inspired her to pursue the study of mRNA-based gene therapy.

By the late 1990s, however, Karikó’s work on mRNA and gene therapy had stalled—again, for lack of funding. She considered leaving Penn for another research institution or pursuing different work entirely, but then she began collaborating at Penn with Weissman. Both researchers were interested in the possibility of using mRNA to stimulate the body to develop immunity against viral pathogens. In initial studies, they discovered that mRNA is highly immunogenic, provoking counterproductive immune responses in the body. However, when Karikó carried out experiments with a different type of RNA molecule, transfer RNA (tRNA), she did not observe the same immunogenic effects. That observation encouraged her and Weissman to experiment with modified nucleosides, which she had known about from her work at the BRC. The researchers went on to identify associations between specific modified mRNA nucleosides and reduced immunogenicity—a breakthrough that resulted in a technology known as non-immunogenic, nucleoside-modified RNA, which was developed and patented (2005) by Karikó and Weissman.

Karikó and Weissman subsequently started a company called RNARx, which aimed to commercialize non-immunogenic, nucleoside-modified RNA. The researchers eventually licensed the technology to two biotechnology companies, Moderna and BioNTech. In 2013 Karikó took a position as senior vice president at BioNTech, overseeing the company’s work on mRNA. In the following years, although both companies had multiple RNA therapeutics in clinical trials, none had yet proved successful. In 2021, however, a major breakthrough came during the COVID-19 pandemic, fueled by the urgency to develop a vaccine that could help prevent or reduce the severity of infection with SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19. Unlike traditional vaccine development, the generation of mRNA vaccines is relatively rapid, relying primarily on synthetic technologies, without any need for actual virus particles. Within months of obtaining the genetic code of SARS-CoV-2, scientists at Moderna and Pfizer-BioNTech had experimental mRNA vaccines ready for testing.

Awards

In addition to the Nobel Prize, Karikó’s work on RNA therapeutics was recognized with numerous honours, including the Lewis S. Rosenstiel Award for Distinguished Work in Basic Medical Research (2020), the Lasker-DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award (2021), and the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (2021); all three awards were shared with Weissman.

Details

Katalin Karikó (born 17 January 1955) is a Hungarian-American biochemist who specializes in ribonucleic acid (RNA)-mediated mechanisms, particularly in vitro-transcribed messenger RNA (mRNA) for protein replacement therapy. Karikó laid the scientific groundwork for mRNA vaccines, overcoming major obstacles and skepticism in the scientific community. Karikó received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2023 for her work, along with American immunologist Drew Weissman.

Karikó co-founded and was CEO of RNARx from 2006 to 2013. From 2013 to 2022, she was associated with BioNTech RNA Pharmaceuticals, first as a vice president and promoted to senior vice president in 2019. In 2022, she left BioNTech to devote more time to research. In 2021, she received an honorary doctorate from the University of Szeged in Hungary, where she has since become a professor. While Karikó has also been associated with the University of Pennsylvania, which would benefit financially from her eventual discovery, the university had actively discouraged her from pursuing research by underfunding and deprioritizing work on mRNA. After being demoted by the University of Pennsylvania in 1995, Karikó was never granted tenure and joined BioNTech in 2013 after the university had declined to reinstate her.

Karikó's work includes scientific research on RNA-mediated immune activation, resulting in the co-discovery with Drew Weissman of the nucleoside modifications that suppress the immunogenicity of RNA. This is seen as a further contribution to the therapeutic use of mRNA. Together with Weissman, she holds United States patents for the application of non-immunogenic, nucleoside-modified RNA. This technology has been licensed by BioNTech and Moderna to develop their protein replacement technologies, but it was also used for their COVID-19 vaccines.

The messenger RNA-based technology developed by Karikó and the two most effective vaccines based on it, BioNTech/Pfizer and Moderna, have formed the basis for the effective and successful fight against SARS-CoV-2 virus worldwide and have contributed significantly to the containment of the COVID-19 pandemic. For their work, Karikó and Weissman have received numerous other awards besides the Nobel, including the Lasker–DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award, Time Magazine's Hero of the Year 2021, and the Tang Prize Award in Biopharmaceutical Science in 2022.

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

My pleasure!

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2376) Shinkansen

Gist

The Shinkansen, or "Bullet Train," is Japan's high-speed railway network, known for its speed, reliability, and advanced technology. Opened in 1964 to connect distant regions and facilitate economic growth, the Shinkansen network allows passengers to travel efficiently between major cities like Tokyo, Osaka, and Fukuoka. The trains are characterized by their aerodynamic, bullet-shaped noses and operate on dedicated tracks, with a central management system ensuring high levels of safety.

Summary

The Shinkansen, colloquially known in English as the bullet train, is a network of high-speed railway lines in Japan. It was initially built to connect distant Japanese regions with Tokyo, the capital, to aid economic growth and development. Beyond long-distance travel, some sections around the largest metropolitan areas are used as a commuter rail network. It is owned by the Japan Railway Construction, Transport and Technology Agency and operated by five Japan Railways Group companies.

Starting with the Tokaido Shinkansen (515.4 km; 320.3 mi) in 1964, the network has expanded to consist of 2,951.3 km (1,833.9 mi) of lines with maximum speeds of 260–320 km/h (160–200 mph), 283.5 km (176.2 mi) of Mini-shinkansen lines with a maximum speed of 130 km/h (80 mph), and 10.3 km (6.4 mi) of spur lines with Shinkansen services. The network links most major cities on the islands of Honshu and Kyushu, and connects to Hakodate on the northern island of Hokkaido. An extension to Sapporo is under construction and was initially scheduled to open by fiscal year 2030, but in December 2024, it was delayed until the end of FY2038. The maximum operating speed is 320 km/h (200 mph) (on a 387.5 km (241 mi) section of the Tōhoku Shinkansen). Test runs have reached 443 km/h (275 mph) for conventional rail in 1996, and up to a world record 603 km/h (375 mph) for SCMaglev trains in April 2015.

The original Tokaido Shinkansen, connecting Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka —three of Japan's largest cities — is one of the world's busiest high-speed rail lines. In the one-year period preceding March 2017, it carried 159 million passengers, and since its opening more than six decades ago, it has transported more than 6.4 billion total passengers. At peak times, the line carries up to 16 trains per hour in each direction with 16 cars each (1,323-seat capacity and occasionally additional standing passengers) with a minimum headway of three minutes between trains.

The Shinkansen network of Japan had the highest annual passenger ridership (a maximum of 353 million in 2007) of any high-speed rail network until 2011, when the Chinese high-speed railway network surpassed it at 370 million passengers annually.

Details

Shinkansen, pioneer high-speed passenger rail system of Japan, with lines on the islands of Honshu, Kyushu, and Hokkaido. It was originally built and operated by the government-owned Japanese National Railways and has been part of the private Japan Railways Group since 1987.

The first section of the original line, a 320-mile (515-km) stretch between Tokyo and Ōsaka, was opened in 1964. Known as the New Tōkaidō Line, it generally follows and is named for the historic and celebrated Tōkaidō (“Eastern Sea Road”) highway that was used especially during the Edo (Tokugawa) period (1603–1867). Inauguration of the line, just before the start of the Tokyo 1964 Olympic Games, was greeted by widespread international acclaim, and the Shinkansen was quickly dubbed the “bullet train” for the great speed the trains obtained and for the aerodynamic bullet shape of their noses. Many innovations, such as the use of prestressed concrete ties and mile-long welded sections of track, were introduced in the line’s construction. A 100-mile (160-km) extension of that line westward from Ōsaka to Okayama was completed in 1972, and its final segment, a 244-mile (393-km) stretch between Okayama and the Hakata station in Fukuoka, northern Kyushu, opened in 1975.

Other lines radiating northward from Tokyo were completed in 1982 to the cities of Niigata (the Jōetsu line) and Morioka (the Tōhoku line), the Tōhoku line subsequently being extended northward to Hachinohe in 2002. Work to build a link to Aomori, northwest of Hachinohe, began in the late 1990s. When that segment opened in 2010, the Shinkansen was essentially complete for the entire length of Honshu. However, plans had long been in place to connect all three main Japanese islands by Shinkansen with a line northward into Hokkaido (via the Seikan Tunnel under Tsugaru Strait). Construction on the Hokkaido line began in 2005 on the segment between Aomori and Hakodate in southern Hokkaido, the ultimate goal being to extend the line to Sapporo. The line between Aomori and Hakodate opened in 2016. Construction on the section from Hakodate to Sapporo was begun in 2012 and expected to be completed in 2031.

Branches from the Tōhoku line to Yamagata opened in 1992 (extended north to Shinjo in 1999) and to Akita in 1997; a branch from the Jōetsu line to Nagano also opened in 1997. Segments of a further extension of the Nagano branch westward to Toyama and Kanazawa opened in 2015. In addition, a line was completed between Yatsushiro and Kagoshima in southwestern Kyushu in 2004. In the late 1990s work commenced to extend that line northward from Yatsushiro to Hakata, and the opening of the segment in 2011 completed the full north-south route of the Shinkansen on Kyushu. Work began in 2008 on a branch from the Kyushu line southwestward to Nagasaki, and it opened in 2022.

Much of the system’s track runs through tunnels, including one under Shimonoseki Strait between Honshu and Kyushu, another on the Tokyo-Niigata line that is 14 miles (23 km) long, and another near Aomori with a record length (for a double-tracked inland tunnel) of 16.5 miles (26.5 km) when the bore was finished in 2005. Several hundred trains operate daily on the Shinkansen system. The most-frequent service is between Tokyo and Ōsaka, especially during the morning and evening rush hours, when trains depart at intervals of 10 minutes or less. The fastest trains can make the trip from Tokyo to Hakata in about five hours, and the quickest from Tokyo to Aomori take about three hours.

The electric multiple-unit trains, which can seat 1,000 passengers or more, derive their power from an overhead wire system. Trains originally reached top speeds of 130 miles (210 km) per hour, but improvements in track, train cars, and other components have made possible maximum speeds of between 150 and 185 miles (240 and 300 km) per hour. In early 2013 some trains began operating at up to 200 miles (320 km) per hour. Such high speeds made it necessary to develop elaborate safety features. Each car, for example, is equipped with brakes consisting of cast-iron discs and metallic pad linings specially designed not to distort under emergency braking. Moreover, all movements of the trains are monitored and controlled by a central computerized facility in Tokyo.

Additional Information

Japan's main islands of Honshu, Kyushu and Hokkaido are served by a network of high speed train lines that connect Tokyo with most of the country's major cities. Japan's high speed trains (bullet trains) are called shinkansen and are operated by Japan Railways (JR).

Running at speeds of up to 320 km/h, the shinkansen is known for punctuality (most trains depart on time to the second), comfort (relatively silent cars with spacious, always forward-facing seats), safety (no fatal accidents in its history) and efficiency. Thanks to various rail passes, the shinkansen can also be a cost-effective means of travel.

Shinkansen network

The shinkansen network consists of multiple lines, among which the Tokaido Shinkansen (Tokyo - Nagoya - Kyoto - Osaka) is the oldest and most popular. All shinkansen lines (except the Akita and Yamagata Shinkansen) run on tracks that are exclusively built for and used by shinkansen trains. Most lines are served by multiple train categories, ranging from the fastest category that stops only at major stations to the slowest category that stops at every station.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

Platelets

Gist

Platelets, or thrombocytes, are small, disc-shaped blood cell fragments produced in the bone marrow that are crucial for blood clotting. When you're injured, platelets adhere to the site of the wound and form a plug to stop or slow bleeding. Conditions like thrombocytopenia (too few platelets) or thrombocytosis (too many) can impair clotting and cause problems with bleeding or the formation of dangerous blood clots, respectively.

Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small, colorless cell fragments in the blood that play a crucial role in blood clotting and wound healing. They are not true cells but rather fragments of megakaryocytes, large cells in the bone marrow. When a blood vessel is damaged, platelets help form a blood clot to stop or slow down bleeding.

Summary

Platelets or thrombocytes are a part of blood whose function (along with the coagulation factors) is to react to bleeding from blood vessel injury by clumping to form a blood clot. Platelets have no cell nucleus; they are fragments of cytoplasm from megakaryocytes which reside in bone marrow or lung tissue, and then enter the circulation. Platelets are found only in mammals, whereas in other vertebrates (e.g. birds, amphibians), thrombocytes circulate as intact mononuclear cells.

One major function of platelets is to contribute to hemostasis: the process of stopping bleeding at the site where the lining of vessels (endothelium) has been interrupted. Platelets gather at the site and, unless the interruption is physically too large, they plug it. First, platelets attach to substances outside the interrupted endothelium: adhesion. Second, they change shape, turn on receptors and secrete chemical messengers: activation. Third, they connect to each other through receptor bridges: aggregation. Formation of this platelet plug (primary hemostasis) is associated with activation of the coagulation cascade, with resultant fibrin deposition and linking (secondary hemostasis). These processes may overlap: the spectrum is from a predominantly platelet plug, or "white clot" to a predominantly fibrin, or "red clot" or the more typical mixture. Berridge adds retraction and platelet inhibition as fourth and fifth steps, while others would add a sixth step, wound repair. Platelets participate in both innate and adaptive intravascular immune responses.

In addition to facilitating the clotting process, platelets contain cytokines and growth factors which can promote wound healing and regeneration of damaged tissues.

Details

Platelets are cell fragments and the smallest component of your blood. Their primary job is to stop the bleeding if you’re injured. If a blood vessel is damaged, platelets cluster together to form a plug first and then a clot to stop the blood loss. Common conditions involving platelets include thrombocytopenia and thrombocytosis.

What are platelets?

Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are tiny cell fragments in your blood that help with clotting. Platelets are your body’s natural bandage to stop bleeding if you’re injured.

Just a single drop of your blood contains tens of thousands of platelets. It’s important that you have enough (but not too many) of them. Too few platelets can put you at risk of losing too much blood if you’re injured. Too many platelets may increase your risk of dangerous blood clots. The right number of platelets can prevent blood loss during injury without putting you at risk of harmful clots that can restrict blood flow.

Function:

What do platelets do?

Your platelets’ primary function is to stop bleeding if a blood vessel gets damaged. During an injury, platelets cluster together at the site of the wound to act as a plug. They also help seal the blood vessels in a process called clotting (coagulation) to prevent excess blood from leaving your body.

The official process to stop bleeding from a damaged blood vessel is called hemostasis. Here’s a breakdown of how platelets function during hemostasis:

* Adhesion: The platelets that circulate in your blood travel to the break in the blood vessel wall and stick (“adhere”) there.
* Activation: The platelets that stick to the wall go through changes that keep hemostasis going. For example, they release substances that cause the blood vessel to narrow so less blood seeps out. They also release substances to attract more platelets to the wound site. They change shape so that it’s easier for the new platelets to bind together.
* Aggregation: The platelets stick together to form a temporary plug that seals the break in the blood vessel wall.

The action of the platelets triggers a series of events called the “coagulation cascade.” During this process, proteins called clotting factors work together to create a substance called fibrin. The fibrin acts as a powerful mesh that reinforces the platelet plug. Together, these elements form a more stable blood clot that stops the bleeding.

Anatomy:

Where are platelets located?

Your platelets are located primarily in your bone marrow, blood and spleen.

* Bone marrow: Platelets form from the largest cells in your bone marrow — white blood cells called megakaryocytes. New platelets bud from the megakaryocytes. This is why platelets are considered cell fragments instead of whole cells.
* Blood: Whole blood consists of plasma (the liquid part), red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. As platelets are the lightest component of whole blood, they are pushed to the walls of your blood vessels, allowing plasma and blood cells to flow through the center. The location helps platelets reach injured blood vessel walls quickly to stop bleeding.
* Spleen: Your spleen stores about one-third of your platelets. It also filters old or damaged platelets.

How many platelets are in my blood?

Platelets and white blood cells make up 1% of your whole blood, along with plasma (55% total volume) and red blood cells (44% total volume). There’s about 1 platelet for every 20 red blood cells in your body.

At any given time, a healthy person has 150,000 to 450,000 platelets per microliter of blood. Your body is continually making platelets because they only live for about seven to 10 days. It takes about 72 hours (three days) for your body to make new platelets.

What do platelets look like?

Platelets are small, colorless cell fragments. They form in the shape of a plate, which is where they get their name. Proteins on the exterior of your platelet walls are sticky to help them adhere to your blood vessels. When actively clotting, platelets extend filaments (a long thread of cells) that resemble legs on a spider. These legs make contact with the broken blood vessel and other platelets to seal the damage and stop the bleeding.

Conditions and Disorders:

What are the common conditions and disorders that affect platelets?

Most platelet conditions involve having too few or too many platelets:

* Thrombocytopenia (low platelet count): Conditions that prevent your body from making platelets or that destroy them prematurely can cause low platelets. Low platelets increase your bleeding risk.
* Thrombocytosis (high platelet count): Conditions that cause high platelets involve primary problems with platelet production in your bone marrow or secondary problems, where platelets increase in response to something else.

What are common signs or symptoms of a condition affecting my platelets?

Common signs and symptoms of platelet conditions include:

* Bruising (including purpura and petechiae).
* Frequent nosebleeds (epistaxis) or bleeding gums in your mouth.
* Blood in your poop or pee.
* Internal bleeding.
*Excessive bleeding from small wounds.
* Heavy menstrual bleeding (menorrhagia).
* An enlarged spleen (splenomegaly).
* Muscle and joint pain.
* Tingling in hands/feet (paresthesia).
* Leg swelling (edema).
* Severe headaches, weakness or dizziness.

What tests check the health of my platelets?

Tests that check the health of your platelets include:

* Complete blood count (CBC): This blood test identifies how many blood cells and platelets are circulating throughout your body. A platelet count is the specific part of a CBC that checks how many platelets you have.
* Peripheral blood smear (PBS): During this test, a provider looks at a sample of blood beneath a microscope to check for abnormal blood cells and platelets. Oddly shaped or giant platelets may be signs of a condition.
* Blood clotting tests: A prothrombin time test and a partial thromboplastin time test check for multiple factors related to how your blood clots.
* Bone marrow biopsy: Your healthcare provider removes a sample of your bone marrow to examine the health of your cells where platelets form.
* Genetic tests: These tests can show if you have a genetic mutation (a change) that’s causing issues with how your platelets function.

What are common treatments for platelet-related conditions?

Treatments for platelet conditions include:

* Over-the-counter medications: Taking a low dose of aspirin daily can prevent harmful blood clots if you’re at risk.
* Prescription medications: Some medications slow the production of platelets in your bone marrow. Others treat the condition causing abnormal platelets, like autoimmune diseases or infections.
* Plateletpheresis: This procedure is a type of apheresis that treats high platelets. It uses a machine to filter out some of the excess platelets.
* Platelet transfusions: You may need a special type of blood transfusion that involves receiving blood with high concentrations of platelets if you’re at risk of severe blood loss because of low platelets.
* Surgery to remove your spleen (splenectomy): You may need this surgery if your spleen is trapping too many platelets and causing low counts.

Care:

How do I keep my platelets healthy?

It’s important to follow your healthcare provider’s instructions if you have a condition that’s causing problems with your platelets. Even if you don’t have a condition, you can care for your platelets by:

* Limiting your alcohol intake.
* Not smoking.
* Avoiding toxic chemicals.
* Taking care to avoid injury.

You can also help care for others by donating platelets. The process is similar to donating blood, except it involves removing some of your platelets and returning the other blood components back to you. Platelet donations help individuals with chronic illnesses, cancer or serious injuries.

Additional Information

A is a platelet, colourless, nonnucleated blood component that is important in the formation of blood clots (coagulation). Platelets are found only in the blood of mammals.

Platelets are formed when cytoplasmic fragments of megakaryocytes, which are very large cells in the bone marrow, pinch off into the circulation as they age. They are stored in the spleen. Some evidence suggests platelets may also be produced or stored in the lungs, where megakaryocytes are frequently found.

Platelets play an important role in the formation of a blood clot by aggregating to block a cut blood vessel and provide a surface on which strands of fibrin form an organized clot, by contracting to pull the fibrin strands together to make the clot firm and permanent, and, perhaps most important, by providing or mediating a series of clotting factors necessary to the formation of the clot. Platelets also store and transport several chemicals, including serotonin, epinephrine, histamine, and thromboxane; upon activation these molecules are released and initiate local blood vessel constriction, which facilitates clot formation.

At birth the number of platelets is low, but by three months of age the adult level is reached. The number of platelets rises following trauma or asphyxiation, at high altitudes, after exercise, and in cold temperatures; the number may be temporarily lowered by menstruation in women. Certain chemicals may prolong the life of platelets; smoking is believed to shorten their life spans.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Climb Quotes - III

1. Like dogs in a wheel, birds in a cage, or squirrels in a chain, ambitious men still climb and climb, with great labor, and incessant anxiety, but never reach the top. - Robert Browning

2. The tree I had in the garden as a child, my beech tree, I used to climb up there and spend hours. I took my homework up there, my books, I went up there if I was sad, and it just felt very good to be up there among the green leaves and the birds and the sky. - Jane Goodall

3. Climb the mountains and get their good tidings. - John Muir

4. If I know I make this much trouble, I never climb Everest. - Tenzing Norgay

5. If you're trying to achieve, there will be roadblocks. I've had them; everybody has had them. But obstacles don't have to stop you. If you run into a wall, don't turn around and give up. Figure out how to climb it, go through it, or work around it. - Michael Jordan

6. The soul grows by reincarnation in bodies provided by nature, more complex, more powerful, as the soul unfolds greater and greater faculties. And so the soul climbs upward into the light eternal. And there is no fear for any child of man, for inevitably he climbs towards God. - Annie Besant

7. I think I mainly climb mountains because I get a great deal of enjoyment out of it. I never attempt to analyze these things too thoroughly, but I think that all mountaineers do get a great deal of satisfaction out of overcoming some challenge which they think is very difficult for them, or which perhaps may be a little dangerous. - Edmund Hillary

8. He climbs highest who helps another up. - Zig Ziglar.

Jai Ganesh · Maths Is Fun - Suggestions and Comments

I am a Physics graduate. I have experience of 35 years plus before browsing the net, 25 on the net roughly. I concede Rod and Bob much more experience. I verify facts before posting, as a rule.

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