Math Is Fun Forum

Malaria

Gist

Malaria is a severe, often fatal, disease caused by Plasmodium parasites transmitted through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, primarily in tropical regions. Symptoms include high fever, shivering chills, headache, and fatigue. It is preventable and curable, but requires prompt diagnosis and treatment.

Malaria is caused by single-celled Plasmodium parasites, which are transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. When an infected mosquito bites a person, the parasites enter the bloodstream, travel to the liver to mature, and subsequently infect red blood cells, causing symptoms.

Summary

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease which is transmitted by the bite of Anopheles mosquitoes. Human malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches; in severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. Symptoms usually begin 10 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected Anopheles mosquito. If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later. Those who survive an infection develop partial immunity, being susceptible to reinfection although with milder symptoms. This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.

Malaria is caused by single-celled parasites of the genus Plasmodium, generally spread through the bites of an infected female Anopheles mosquito. The mosquito bite introduces the parasites from the mosquito's saliva into the blood. The parasites initially reproduce and mature in the liver without causing symptoms. After a few days the mature parasites spread into the bloodstream, where they infect and destroy red blood cells, causing the symptoms of infection. Five species of Plasmodium commonly infect humans. The three species associated with more severe cases are P. falciparum (which is responsible for the vast majority of malaria deaths), P. vivax, and P. knowlesi (a simian malaria that spills over into thousands of people a year). P. ovale and P. malariae generally cause a milder form of malaria. Malaria is typically diagnosed by the microscopic examination of blood using blood films, or with antigen-based rapid diagnostic tests. Methods that use the polymerase chain reaction to detect the parasite's DNA have been developed, but they are not widely used in areas where malaria is common, due to their cost and complexity.

The risk of disease can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites through the use of mosquito nets and insect repellents or with mosquito-control measures such as spraying insecticides and draining standing water. Several prophylactic medications are available to prevent malaria in areas where the disease is common. As of 2023, two malaria vaccines have been endorsed by the World Health Organization. Resistance among the parasites has developed to several antimalarial medications; for example, chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum has spread to most malaria-prone areas, and resistance to artemisinin has become a problem in some parts of Southeast Asia. Because of this, drug treatment for malaria infection should be tailored to best fit the Plasmodium species involved and the geographical location where the infection was acquired.

The disease is widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions that exist in a broad band around the equator. This includes much of sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In 2023, some 263 million cases of malaria worldwide resulted in an estimated 597,000 deaths. Around 95% of the cases and deaths occurred in sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is commonly associated with poverty and has a significant negative effect on economic development; in Africa, it is estimated to result in economic losses (estimated at US$12 billion a year in 2005) due to increased healthcare costs, lost ability to work, and adverse effects on tourism.

Details

Malaria is a potentially life-threatening illness caused by parasites. You get it through the bite of an infected mosquito. It’s most common in parts of the world that are hot and humid, like Africa and parts of Asia. It can cause flu-like symptoms that can progress to severe illness if not treated.

What Is Malaria?

Malaria is a disease you get from being bitten by a mosquito. Some mosquitoes carry tiny parasites. They can infect you with the parasites when they bite you. Malaria can cause severe illness and death if left untreated. Kids under 5 are more likely to get life-threatening illness. Malaria is most common in tropical areas where it’s hot and humid. Most cases happen in Africa. It’s rare in the U.S. See a healthcare provider right away if you live in or have traveled to an area where malaria spreads and you have symptoms. This is true even if you’ve taken medications to prevent malaria during your trip.

Symptoms and Causes:

Symptoms of malaria

Symptoms of malaria can be mild to severe. They often start as flu-like symptoms and can get worse. They include:

* Fever
* Chills
* Headache
* Muscle aches
* Fatigue
* Difficulty breathing
* Diarrhea, nausea or vomiting
* Seizures
* Yellowing of your skin or whites of your eyes (jaundice)
* Dark or bloody pee

Malaria symptoms usually appear several days to a month after you’re infected. Some people don’t feel sick for a year or longer after the mosquito bite.

Malaria causes

Plasmodium parasites cause malaria. There are five types that can infect humans. Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) and Plasmodium vivax (P. vivax) are the most common. P. falciparum often causes severe illness.

How do you get malaria?

A mosquito gets the parasitic infection when it bites someone who’s infected. The mosquito then bites you and spreads the infection. The parasite multiplies in your liver and spreads to your bloodstream. There, it can spread to other people if a mosquito bites you. Rarely, malaria can also spread through:

* Pregnancy or childbirth (vertical transmission)
* Blood transfusions
* Organ donations
* Sharing needles

Risk factors

You’re at a higher risk of getting malaria if you live in or travel to areas where it spreads, like parts of Africa. You’re at a higher risk of serious illness and death if you:

* Are younger than 5
* Are pregnant
* Have a weakened immune system
* Don’t have access to healthcare

What countries have malaria?

Malaria is most common in areas with warm temperatures and high humidity, including:

* Africa
* Central and South America
* Dominican Republic, Haiti and other areas in the Caribbean
* Islands in the Central and South Pacific Ocean (Oceania)
* South and Southeast Asia

Complications of malaria

If left untreated, malaria can cause severe complications. These include:

* Blocked blood vessels in your brain (cerebral malaria)
* Coma
* Organ failure

These complications can be fatal.

Diagnosis and Tests:

How doctors diagnose malaria

Healthcare providers test a sample of your blood to diagnose malaria. They’ll look for Plasmodium parasites and identify what type of infection you have. Your provider will use this information to determine the right treatment. It’s important to tell your provider if you’ve traveled within the past year so they know to test for malaria.

Management and Treatment:

How is malaria treated?

Healthcare providers treat malaria with medications that kill the parasite (antimalarial medications). The type of antimalarial medication your provider treats you with depends on:

* Where you were infected — you’re more likely to get drug-resistant infections in certain parts of the world
* The type of Plasmodium causing the infection
* How sick you are
* Whether you’re pregnant or breastfeeding
* Your age

Medications can cure malaria, but it’s important to start treating it as soon as possible.

Antimalarial drugs

Antimalarial medications kill the Plasmodium parasites. You might receive them in an IV or take them by mouth. They include:

* Artemether-lumefantrine
* Atovaquone-proguanil
* Chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine
* Doxycycline, tetracycline or clindamycin
* Mefloquine
* Quinine
* Primaquine
* Tafenoquine

You might receive one or a combination of these. Take all medications as prescribed, even if you start to feel better.

When should I see my healthcare provider?

See a healthcare provider right away if you’ve traveled to or live in a country where malaria is common and you have symptoms. Early diagnosis gives you the best chance for a full recovery.

Outlook / Prognosis:

What can I expect if I have malaria?

Antimalarial medications can cure malaria, especially if started early. You might need to stay at the hospital, at least to start your treatment. Treatment can last for about two weeks, but you might start feeling better in a few days. Let your provider know if you aren’t feeling better or if your symptoms get worse. Sometimes, even after treatment, malaria infections can come back (recur). This happens when the parasite isn’t completely killed by treatment. It can stay in your body without causing symptoms. You can start having symptoms again years after your initial infection and treatment. Medications like primaquine and tafenoquine make this less likely to happen. You can get malaria again, even if you’ve had it before.

Prevention:

Can you prevent malaria?

There are a few ways to reduce your risk of getting and spreading malaria:

* Preventive medications: If you’re traveling to an area where malaria is common, your healthcare provider might prescribe antimalarial medications for you to take before, during and after your stay. If you get malaria while on an antimalarial drug, providers will give you a different medication to treat it.
* Mosquito bite prevention: Wear bug spray with DEET, cover as much skin as possible with clothing, sleep under mosquito netting and take other precautions to avoid getting bitten.
* Vaccination: Public health officials recommend vaccinating against malaria for children who live in areas where infections are common. They’re not currently recommended for travelers.

Additional Information:

Overview

Malaria is a disease caused by a parasite. The parasite is spread to humans through the bites of infected mosquitoes. People who have malaria usually feel very sick with a high fever and shaking chills.

While the disease is uncommon in temperate climates, malaria is still common in tropical and subtropical countries. Each year nearly 290 million people are infected with malaria, and more than 400,000 people die of the disease.

To reduce malaria infections, world health programs distribute preventive drugs and insecticide-treated bed nets to protect people from mosquito bites. The World Health Organization has recommended a malaria vaccine for use in children who live in countries with high numbers of malaria cases.

Protective clothing, bed nets and insecticides can protect you while traveling. You also can take preventive medicine before, during and after a trip to a high-risk area. Many malaria parasites have developed resistance to common drugs used to treat the disease.

Symptoms

Signs and symptoms of malaria may include:

* Fever
* Chills
* General feeling of discomfort
* Headache
* Nausea and vomiting
* Diarrhea
* Abdominal pain
* Muscle or joint pain
* Fatigue
* Rapid breathing
* Rapid heart rate
* Cough

Some people who have malaria experience cycles of malaria "attacks." An attack usually starts with shivering and chills, followed by a high fever, followed by sweating and a return to normal temperature.

Malaria signs and symptoms typically begin within a few weeks after being bitten by an infected mosquito. However, some types of malaria parasites can lie dormant in your body for up to a year.

When to see a doctor

Talk to your doctor if you experience a fever while living in or after traveling to a high-risk malaria region. If you have severe symptoms, seek emergency medical attention.

Complications

Malaria can be fatal, particularly when caused by the plasmodium species common in Africa. The World Health Organization estimates that about 94% of all malaria deaths occur in Africa — most commonly in children under the age of 5.

Malaria deaths are usually related to one or more serious complications, including:

* Cerebral malaria. If parasite-filled blood cells block small blood vessels to your brain (cerebral malaria), swelling of your brain or brain damage may occur. Cerebral malaria may cause seizures and coma.
* Breathing problems. Accumulated fluid in your lungs (pulmonary edema) can make it difficult to breathe.
* Organ failure. Malaria can damage the kidneys or liver or cause the spleen to rupture. Any of these conditions can be life-threatening.
* Anemia. Malaria may result in not having enough red blood cells for an adequate supply of oxygen to your body's tissues (anemia).
* Low blood sugar. Severe forms of malaria can cause low blood sugar (hypoglycemia), as can quinine — a common medication used to combat malaria. Very low blood sugar can result in coma or death.

Malaria may recur

Some varieties of the malaria parasite, which typically cause milder forms of the disease, can persist for years and cause relapses.

Prevention

If you live in or are traveling to an area where malaria is common, take steps to avoid mosquito bites. Mosquitoes are most active between dusk and dawn. To protect yourself from mosquito bites, you should:

* Cover your skin. Wear pants and long-sleeved shirts. Tuck in your shirt, and tuck pant legs into socks.
* Apply insect repellent to skin. Use an insect repellent registered with the Environmental Protection Agency on any exposed skin. These include repellents that contain DEET, picaridin, IR3535, oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE), para-menthane-3,8-diol (PMD) or 2-undecanone. Do not use a spray directly on your face. Do not use products with oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE) or p-Menthane-3,8-diol (PMD) on children under age 3.
* Apply repellent to clothing. Sprays containing permethrin are safe to apply to clothing.
* Sleep under a net. Bed nets, particularly those treated with insecticides, such as permethrin, help prevent mosquito bites while you are sleeping.

Preventive medicine

If you'll be traveling to a location where malaria is common, talk to your doctor a few months ahead of time about whether you should take drugs before, during and after your trip to help protect you from malaria parasites.

In general, the drugs taken to prevent malaria are the same drugs used to treat the disease. What drug you take depends on where and how long you are traveling and your own health.

Vaccine

The World Health Organization has recommended a malaria vaccine for use in children who live in countries with high numbers of malaria cases.

Researchers are continuing to develop and study malaria vaccines to prevent infection.

Comfort Quotes - II

1. There is nothing like staying at home for real comfort. - Jane Austen

2. The lust for comfort, that stealthy thing that enters the house a guest, and then becomes a host, and then a master. - Khalil Gibran

3. Prosperity is not without many fears and distastes; adversity not without many comforts and hopes. - Francis Bacon

4. Life is made up, not of great sacrifices or duties, but of little things, in which smiles and kindness, and small obligations given habitually, are what preserve the heart and secure comfort. - Humphry Davy

5. In poverty and other misfortunes of life, true friends are a sure refuge. The young they keep out of mischief; to the old they are a comfort and aid in their weakness, and those in the prime of life they incite to noble deeds. - Aristotle

6. A scholar who cherishes the love of comfort is not fit to be deemed a scholar. - Lao Tzu

7. Physical comforts cannot subdue mental suffering, and if we look closely, we can see that those who have many possessions are not necessarily happy. In fact, being wealthy often brings even more anxiety. - Dalai Lama

8. If a nation values anything more than freedom, it will lose its freedom, and the irony of it is that if it is comfort or money that it values more, it will lose that too. - W. Somerset Maugham.

Nitrogen Dioxide

Gist

Nitrogen dioxide is a highly reactive, reddish-brown toxic gas with a pungent odor, acting as a major air pollutant and strong oxidant. Primarily produced by burning fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants, and industrial equipment, it poses severe respiratory health risks, including asthma, and contributes to smog, acid rain, and ozone formation.

NO2 is comprised of one atom of nitrogen and two atoms of oxygen, and is a gas at ambient temperatures. It has a pungent smell, and is brownish red in color.

Summary

Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical compound with the formula NO2. One of several nitrogen oxides, nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown gas. It is a paramagnetic, bent molecule with C2v point group symmetry. Industrially, NO2 is an intermediate in the synthesis of nitric acid, millions of tons of which are produced each year, primarily for the production of fertilizers.

Nitrogen dioxide is poisonous and can be fatal if inhaled in large quantities. Cooking with a gas stove produces nitrogen dioxide which causes poorer indoor air quality. Combustion of gas can lead to increased concentrations of nitrogen dioxide throughout the home environment which is linked to respiratory issues and diseases. The LC50 (median lethal dose) for humans has been estimated to be 174 ppm for a 1-hour exposure. It is also included in the NOx family of atmospheric pollutants.

Properties

Nitrogen dioxide is a reddish-brown gas with a pungent, acrid odor above 21.2 °C (70.2 °F; 294.3 K) and becomes a yellowish-brown liquid below 21.2 °C (70.2 °F; 294.3 K). It forms an equilibrium with its dimer, dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), and converts almost entirely to N2O4 below −11.2 °C (11.8 °F; 261.9 K).

The bond length between the nitrogen atom and the oxygen atom is 119.7 pm. This bond length is consistent with a bond order between one and two. Nitrogen dioxide is a doublet state.

Details

Nitrogen dioxide, or NO2, is a gaseous air pollutant composed of nitrogen and oxygen and is one of a group of related gases called nitrogen oxides, or NOx. Nitrogen dioxide forms when fossil fuels such as coal, oil, methane gas (natural gas) or diesel are burned at high temperatures. NO2 and other nitrogen oxides in the outdoor air contribute to particle pollution and to the chemical reactions that make ozone. It is one of six widespread air pollutants for which there are national air quality standards to limit their levels in the outdoor air. NO2 can also form indoors when fuels like wood or gas are burned.

What Are the Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide Pollution?

Nitrogen dioxide causes a range of harmful effects on the lungs, including:

* Increased inflammation of the airways;
* Worsened cough and wheezing;
* Reduced lung function;
* Increased asthma attacks; and
* Greater likelihood of emergency department and hospital admissions.

Scientific evidence suggests that exposure to NO2 could likely cause asthma in children.

A 2022 review of multiple studies found that elevated levels of NO2, as well as elevated particulate matter and sulfur dioxide, were strongly associated with heart and lung harm, affected pregnancy and birth outcomes, and were likely associated with increased risk of kidney and neurological harm, autoimmune disorders and cancer.

What Are the Sources of Nitrogen Dioxide Emissions?

As of 2020, human-made sources in the U.S. emit 7.64 million short tons of nitrogen oxides per year (down from 15 million short tons per year in 2011) mainly from burning fuels. Trucks, buses, and cars are the largest sources of NO2 emissions, followed by diesel-powered non-road equipment, industrial processes such as oil and gas production, industrial boilers and other movable engines, and coal-fired power plants. Emissions of nitrogen dioxide will decline as cleanup of many of these sources continue in future years.

Where Do High NO2 Concentrations Occur?

Monitors show the highest concentrations of outdoor NO2 in large urban regions such as the Northeast corridor, Chicago and Los Angeles. Levels are higher on or near heavily traveled roadways.

It is important to note that NO2 and other nitrogen oxides are also produced from burning natural gas (methane), both outdoors and indoors. Outdoors, this can include gas-fired power plants and from facilities that extract, process or transport oil and gas if they burn it in flares or to power equipment. Indoors, appliances such as stoves, dryers and space heaters that burn natural gas, liquified petroleum gas (or LPG, which includes propane and butane) and kerosene can produce substantial amounts of nitrogen dioxide. If those appliances are not fully vented to the outside, levels of NO2 can build up to unhealthy levels indoors.

Who Is at Risk?

While everyone is at risk from health impacts of nitrogen dioxide pollution, those that live near the emission sources are at higher risk. Other vulnerable subpopulations at higher risk from nitrogen dioxide exposure include:

* Individuals who are pregnant;
* Infants, children and teens;
* Older adults (>65 years of age);
* People with pre-existing medical conditions such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cardiovascular disease, diabetes, lung cancer
* Current or former smokers;
* People with low socioeconomic status; and
* People of color.

What Can We Do about It?

The good news is that for much of the nation, the outdoor air has much lower levels of nitrogen dioxide now than in previous decades. Under the federal Clean Air Act, more protective standards nationwide have helped drive down nitrogen dioxide emissions. Power plants, industrial sites and on-road vehicles are cleaner than they used to be, which has driven nationwide improvement in air quality. However, far too many people still breathe in unhealthy levels of nitrogen dioxide pollution.

Individuals can take steps to protect themselves on days with unhealthy levels of air pollutants and also ask policymakers at all levels of government to continue to require cleanup of air pollution.

Additional Information:

What is Nitrogen dioxide?

NO2 is a highly poisonous gas with the chemical name Nitrogen dioxide.

It is also called Nitrogen (IV) oxide or Deutoxide of nitrogen. It is one of the major atmospheric pollutants that absorb UV light and stops to reach the earth’s surface.

Nitrogen (IV) oxide is a yellowish-brown liquid in its compressed form or reddish-brown gas. Its vapours are heavier when compared to air.

Nitrogen dioxide Sources – NO2
Over 98 percent of man-made N0, emissions result from Combustion with the majority due to stationary sources. Combustion generated oxides of nitrogen are emitted predominantly as nitric oxide, N0, a relatively harmless gas, but one which is rapidly converted in the atmosphere to the toxic nitrogen dioxide.

Nitrogen dioxide is also a precursor in the formation of nitrate serosols and nitrosamines, the health effects of which are under study. Because of the quantity generated and their potential for widespread adverse effects on public health and welfare, nitrogen oxides are among the atmospheric pollutants for which standards and regularly controls have been established both by the U.S. c

NO2 Uses (Nitrogen dioxide)

* Nitrogen dioxide is used as an intermediate in the production of nitric acid.
* Used in the manufacturing of oxidized cellulose compounds.
* Used as a catalyst.
* Used as an intermediate in the production of sulphuric acid.
* Used as an oxidizer for rocket fuels.
* Used as a nitrating agent.
* Used to bleach flour.
* Used as an oxidizing agent.

Health Hazards
Severe exposures of Deutoxide of nitrogen can be fatal. When in contact it causes a burning sensation in the eyes and skin. When in liquid form it causes frostbite. It is reported to react with the blood to form methemoglobin. When heated to decompose, it releases toxic fumes of nitrogen oxides.

Nitrogen dioxide is an irritant gas which causes inflammation of the airways at high concentrations. NO2 mainly affects respiratory conditions which cause high levels of airway inflammation. Long-term exposure will decrease lung capacity, increase the probability of respiratory problems and increase allergy response. NO2 also contributes to the production of small particles (PM) and ozone at ground level, both associated with harmful effects on the environment.

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1: What is nitrogen dioxide used for?
A1: Nitrogen Dioxide, NO2; was used as a catalyst in some oxidation reactions; as an inhibitor to prevent the polymerization of acrylates during distillation; as an organic compound nitrating agent; as an oxidizing agent; as a rocket fuel; as a flour bleaching agent.

Q2: What does nitrogen dioxide do?
A2: The key consequence of breathing in elevated nitrogen dioxide levels is an increased risk of respiratory disorders. Nitrogen dioxide inflames the lungs ‘ lining and can decrease immunity to infections of the lungs. This can lead to wheezing, coughing, colds, pneumonia, and bronchitis issues.

Q3: Does nitrogen dioxide cause global warming?
A3: Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide are the two most toxic and dangerous nitrogen oxides. Nitrous oxide, often referred to as laughing gas, is a greenhouse gas which contributes to global warming.

Q4: What are the main sources of nitrogen oxides?
A4: Natural causes include volcanoes, rivers, biological collapse and bolts of lightning. Every year human activities add 24 million tons of nitrogen oxides to our atmosphere.

Q5: Is nitrogen dioxide heavier than air?
A5: At high concentrations, nitric oxide is quickly oxidized into the air to produce nitrogen dioxide. Expositions. Nitrogen dioxide is heavier than air, so exposure can result in asphyxiation in poorly ventilated, sealed, or low-lying areas. The gasses at room temperature are both nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide.

Q6: What is nitrogen dioxide made from?
A6: Nitrogen dioxide is an irritant gas which causes inflammation of the airways at high concentrations. As nitrogen is released during the combustion of fuel it reacts with atoms of oxygen to produce nitric oxide (NO). It additionally reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

Q7: What causes high nitrogen dioxide levels?
A7: Nitrogen dioxide comes from cars, power stations, and commercial and off-road outlets such as building machinery, lawn machines, and gardening. Such outlets both use fossil fuels. People living or working close to busy highways can suffer high exposure.

Comfort Quotes - I

1. The superior man thinks always of virtue; the common man thinks of comfort. - Confucius

2. Just try new things. Don't be afraid. Step out of your comfort zones and soar, all right? - Michelle Obama

3. All strange and terrible events are welcome, but comforts we despise. - Cleopatra

4. Too often we... enjoy the comfort of opinion without the discomfort of thought. - John F. Kennedy

5. If you look for truth, you may find comfort in the end; if you look for comfort you will not get either comfort or truth only soft soap and wishful thinking to begin, and in the end, despair. - C. S. Lewis

6. The game of basketball has been everything to me. My place of refuge, place I've always gone where I needed comfort and peace. It's been the site of intense pain and the most intense feelings of joy and satisfaction. It's a relationship that has evolved over time, given me the greatest respect and love for the game. - Michael Jordan

7. Cure sometimes, treat often, comfort always. - Hippocrates

8. This is no time for ease and comfort. It is time to dare and endure. - Winston Churchill.

Endoscopy

Gist

Endoscopy is a minimally invasive, non-surgical procedure using a flexible tube with a camera (endoscope) to examine internal organs, primarily the digestive tract, in real-time. It is used to diagnose issues like inflammation, ulcers, or tumors and can treat conditions via biopsy or polyp removal.

The main purpose of endoscopy is to visually examine the inside of the body, diagnose problems, monitor conditions, and perform minimally invasive treatments, using a flexible tube with a camera (endoscope) inserted through a natural opening or small incision. It helps doctors investigate symptoms like pain or bleeding, detect diseases such as cancer, inflammation, or ulcers, take tissue samples (biopsies), and even remove polyps or stop bleeding, all without major surgery. 

Summary

An endoscopy is a procedure used in medicine to look inside the body. The endoscopy procedure uses an endoscope to examine the interior of a hollow organ or cavity of the body. Unlike many other medical imaging techniques, endoscopes are inserted directly into the organ.

There are many types of endoscopies. Depending on the site in the body and type of procedure, an endoscopy may be performed by a doctor or a surgeon. During the procedure, a patient may be fully conscious or anaesthetised. Most often, the term endoscopy is used to refer to an examination of the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract, known as an esophagogastroduodenoscopy.

Similar instruments are called borescopes for nonmedical use.

Details

An endoscopy uses a scope that goes inside your body to take pictures or videos of organs and other structures. Healthcare providers use them to screen, diagnose and treat conditions. There are many types of endoscopy that view different organs. The most common types of endoscopy include colonoscopy, upper endoscopy and laparoscopy.

Overview:

What is an endoscopy?

An endoscopy is a procedure done to examine structures inside your body up close. During an endoscopy, a healthcare provider places a long, thin tube (endoscope) inside your body until it reaches the organ or area they need to check. Most endoscopes have a light and special camera at the end. The scope captures images or videos of organs or other body parts. It displays them on a screen your provider sees.

Many endoscopes have special channels inside. Providers can insert operating instruments to remove tissue or perform surgery during an endoscopy.

What are the types of endoscopy?

There are many types of endoscopy procedures. But they all work in the same basic way. A healthcare provider gently inserts a scope into a body opening or small incision. The scope allows them direct access to parts of your body they need to examine or treat.

Key differences include:

* The procedure name. The name usually reflects the organ your provider is checking. For example, a “colonoscopy” is an endoscopy that examines your colon.
* The type of scope. The name usually reflects the organ, too. So the endoscope used for a colonoscopy is called a colonoscope. Endoscopes differ depending on the tasks they help your provider complete. Some are flexible, while others are rigid. Some have channels inside that hold tools that can remove tissue, seal wounds or perform other treatments.

The procedure specifics, including the body parts your provider is examining and where the scope goes in, are different, too.

* Arthroscopy: Scope goes through an incision above your joint to look for damage or conditions like arthritis.
* Bronchoscopy: Scope goes through your mouth or nostril to look at your trachea (windpipe) and lungs.
* Colonoscopy: Scope goes through your math to look at your entire large intestine (colon).
* Cystoscopy: Scope goes through your urethra (the tube that allows pee out of your body) to look at it and your bladder.
* Enteroscopy: Scope goes through your mouth (for upper enteroscopy) or your anal (for lower enteroscopy) to look at your small intestine.
* Esophagogastroduodenoscopy (EGD) or upper endoscopy: Scope goes through your mouth to look at your esophagus, stomach and the upper part of your small intestine.
* Laparoscopy: Scope goes through an incision in your abdomen to look at your abdominal and reproductive organs.
* Laryngoscopy: Scope goes through your mouth or nostril to look at your voice box (larynx).
* Mediastinoscopy: Scope goes through an incision above your breast bone to look at the area between your lungs that includes your heart, esophagus and windpipe (mediastinum).
* Neuroendoscopy: Scope goes through an incision in your skull to look at your brain.
* Proctoscopy (rigid sigmoidoscopy): Scope goes through your anal to look at your anal and rectum.
* Sigmoidoscopy (flexible sigmoidoscopy): Scope goes through your math to look at the*  lower part of your colon (called the sigmoid) and your rectum.
* Thoracoscopy (also called a pleuroscopy): Scope goes through an incision in your chest to look at your lungs and the area around your lungs, including your diaphragm, esophagus and chest walls.
* Ureteroscopy: Scope goes through your urethra to look at the tubes that connect your kidneys to your bladder (ureters).

Advanced endoscopy techniques

Researchers and scientists continually develop new technologies to make endoscopies even less invasive. For example, a capsule endoscopy shows your organs up close without a scope. Instead, you swallow a vitamin-sized capsule with a camera inside. As the capsule travels through your esophagus, stomach and small intestine, it takes pictures that can help diagnose bleeding and tumors in your digestive system.

What does an endoscopy test for?

Healthcare providers use endoscopies to screen for conditions and diagnose diseases. A colonoscopy is probably the most well-known endoscopy used to screen for diseases. It’s used to detect colon cancer. One of the most well-known diagnostic uses of endoscopy is that it allows providers to remove abnormal tissue for lab testing. This is called a biopsy. Biopsies can show if growths are cancerous or noncancerous.

When providers first used endoscopy, they primarily used it to examine organs. Now, they can use endoscopy for many different treatments, such as fixing a bleeding stomach ulcer. In the past, a problem like this could’ve required surgery.

Diseases an endoscopy can detect

An endoscopy can detect diseases that affect your:

* Digestive system, including gastrointestinal diseases, colon polyps and colon cancer.
* Head and neck, including swallowing disorders and laryngitis.
* Joints, including arthritis, tears and dislocations.
* Nervous system, including brain tumors.
* Respiratory system, including lung disease and infections.
* Urinary system, including urinary tract infections (UTIs) and kidney stones.
* Reproductive system, including abnormal uterine bleeding, endometriosis and fertility issues.

Endoscopy treatments

Some endoscopes can be used with instruments that allow providers to:

* Seal wounds.
* Inject medicine.
* Drain fluid.
* Stop internal bleeding.
* Remove damaged tissue or tumors.
* Fix blockages or widen organs that are too narrow.
* Place stents (tiny tubes that open a blocked or damaged organ).
* Perform surgeries.

During a laparoscopy, providers operate on organs through tiny incisions instead of a large opening. This is sometimes called keyhole surgery. It’s much less invasive than traditional surgery. It’s the preferred technique for treating many conditions.

Test Details:

How do I prepare for an endoscopy?

You’ll receive instructions based on the type of endoscopy. You may be asked to:

* Complete required pre-tests and procedures. You may need a urine test (urinalysis) to check for a UTI before procedures involving your urinary tract. You may need a pregnancy test before a hysteroscopy.
* Provide a medical history. Alert your healthcare provider of any conditions and medications or supplements you’re taking.
* Fast. You may need to stop eating or drinking for a certain amount of time before your endoscopy. Or, you may need to limit yourself to only certain types of food and drink.
* Cleanse your bowels. You may be asked to complete a bowel prep, which involves flushing the feces (poop) out of your intestines. Colonoscopies, enteroscopies and other procedures involving your lower digestive tract involve bowel prep.
* Stop taking certain medicines. You may need to stop taking blood thinners like warfarin (Coumadin® or Jantoven®) and aspirin. You may need to switch prescription medicines briefly before the procedure. Follow your provider’s guidance.
* Stop smoking. You may need to stop smoking and using tobacco products before your procedure.
* Arrange for someone to drive you home. You won’t be able to drive yourself if you receive sedation or anesthesia for your procedure and go home the same day. Most people need to arrange for a driver.

What should I expect during an endoscopy?

An endoscopy typically takes 30 minutes to two hours, depending on the procedure type. Most people go home on the day of their endoscopy, but some endoscopies require an overnight hospital stay.

Providers use moderate sedation for most endoscopies so that you’re asleep and pain-free during the procedure. General anesthesia (which involves intubation, or placement of a breathing tube) is necessary in a small percentage of cases. Some people may instead get local anesthesia and a sedative. Local anesthesia numbs a particular area instead of putting you to sleep completely. Sedatives help you relax.

Once you’re completely relaxed or asleep, the provider gently inserts the scope until it reaches the area they want to examine. They’ll adjust the scope to display the correct organs or structures on the screen. They’ll note irregular areas and remove tissue or provide treatment if needed.

They’ll close any incisions.

How painful is an endoscopy?

The anesthesia and sedatives prevent you from experiencing pain during the procedure. With some procedures, like a colonoscopy, you may feel pressure when the scope goes in, but the feeling passes quickly.

Additional Information

Endoscopy is a procedure that lets your doctor look inside your body. It uses an instrument called an endoscope, or scope for short. Scopes have a tiny camera attached to a long, thin tube. The doctor moves it through a body passageway or opening to see inside an organ. Sometimes scopes are used for surgery, such as for removing polyps from the colon.

There are many different kinds of endoscopy. Here are the names of some of them and where they look.:

Arthroscopy: joints
Bronchoscopy: lungs
Colonoscopy and sigmoidoscopy: large intestine
Cystoscopy and ureteroscopy: urinary system
Laparoscopy: abdomen or pelvis
Upper gastrointestinal endoscopy: esophagus and stomach

What is an endoscopy?

A doctor or specialist nurse, called an endoscopist does the test. The endoscopist uses these to look inside different parts of the body.

The endoscopist can use the camera to take photographs or videos of the areas they are looking at. They can also pass fine surgical instruments through the endoscopes.

The name of the test you have will depend on which part of the body the endoscopist is looking at.

Why do I need an endoscopy?

You might have an endoscopy to help find out what is causing your symptoms. During this test the endoscopist can also take a sample () of any abnormal looking tissue through the endoscope.

Sometimes you might have an endoscopy for treatment. For example, to control bleeding or to put in a .

You are most likely to have an endoscopy to look at the inside of your:

* food pipe (oesophagus)
* stomach
* duodenum, which is the first part of the small bowel that attaches to the stomach

This test is called a gastroscopy or oesophago gastric duodenoscopy (OGD).

You may have this test if you have symptoms such as:

* abnormal bleeding
* indigestion
* low levels of iron (iron deficiency anaemia)
* difficulty swallowing

If you have  you'll have regular gastroscopies to check for any changes to cells in the lining of your food pipe. The endoscopist looks down the endoscope to see if there are any abnormal looking areas. If any are found they can take biopsies through the endoscope.