Math Is Fun Forum

Come Quotes - XXI

1. When we look back on all the perils through which we have passed and at the mighty foes that we have laid low and all the dark and deadly designs that we have frustrated, why should we fear for our future? We have come safely through the worst. - Winston Churchill

2. Whether you come from a council estate or a country estate, your success will be determined by your own confidence and fortitude. - Michelle Obama

3. The smaller the planets are, they are, other things being equal, of so much the greater density; for so the powers of gravity on their several surfaces come nearer to equality. They are likewise, other things being equal, of the greater density, as they are nearer to the sun. - Isaac Newton

4. If you want to cut your own throat, don't come to me for a bandage. - Margaret Thatcher

5. I've been here before and will come again, but I'm not going this trip through. - Bob Marley

6. I perhaps ought to say that individually I never was much interested in the Texas question. I never could see much good to come of annexation, inasmuch as they were already a free republican people on our own model. - Abraham Lincoln

7. This is the moment when we must come together to save this planet. Let us resolve that we will not leave our children a world where the oceans rise and famine spreads and terrible storms devastate our lands. - Barack Obama

8. We will burn that bridge when we come to it. - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

Fibula

Gist

The fibula (calf bone) is the slender, long bone located on the lateral (outer) side of the tibia in the lower leg. While it does not bear significant weight, it is crucial for stabilizing the ankle joint, supporting lower-leg muscles, and forming the lateral malleolus. It connects to the tibia via an interosseous membrane.

The fibula, or calf bone, is the slender, outer bone in the lower leg, running parallel to the larger shin bone (tibia) from just below the knee to the ankle, forming the bony bump (lateral malleolus) on the outside of your ankle and providing vital stability and muscle attachment for movement, though it's not a primary weight-bearing bone. 

Summary

Fibula is the outer of two bones of the lower leg or hind limb, presumably so named (fibula is Latin for “brooch”) because the inner bone, the tibia, and the fibula together resemble an ancient brooch, or pin. In humans the head of the fibula is joined to the head of the tibia by ligaments and does not form part of the knee. The base of the fibula forms the outer projection (malleolus) of the ankle and is joined to the tibia and to one of the ankle bones, the talus. The tibia and fibula are further joined throughout their length by an interosseous membrane between the bones. The fibula is slim and roughly four-sided, and its shape varies with the strength of the attached muscles. In many mammals, such as the horse and the rabbit, the fibula is fused for part of its length with the tibia.

Fractures of the fibula usually are associated with an ankle injury, though they can occur in isolation (without ankle involvement) or in combination with fractures of the tibia (e.g., in severe injuries). Though less common that tibial stress fractures, fibular stress fractures can occur, most typically in long-distance runners.

Details

The fibula (pl.: fibulae or fibulas) or calf bone is a leg bone on the lateral side of the tibia, to which it is connected above and below. It is the smaller of the two bones and, in proportion to its length, the most slender of all the long bones. Its upper extremity is small, placed toward the back of the head of the tibia, below the knee joint and excluded from the formation of this joint. Its lower extremity inclines a little forward, so as to be on a plane anterior to that of the upper end; it projects below the tibia and forms the lateral part of the ankle joint.

Structure

The bone has the following components:

* Lateral malleolus
* Interosseous membrane connecting the fibula to the tibia, forming a syndesmosis joint
* The superior tibiofibular articulation is an arthrodial joint between the lateral condyle of the tibia and the head of the fibula.
* The inferior tibiofibular articulation (tibiofibular syndesmosis) is formed by the rough, convex surface of the medial side of the lower end of the fibula, and a rough concave surface on the lateral side of the tibia.

Blood supply

The blood supply is important for planning free tissue transfer because the fibula is commonly used to reconstruct the mandible. The shaft is supplied in its middle third by a large nutrient vessel from the fibular artery. It is also perfused from its periosteum which receives many small branches from the fibular artery. The proximal head and the epiphysis are supplied by a branch of the anterior tibial artery. In harvesting the bone the middle third is always taken and the ends preserved (4 cm proximally and 6 cm distally)

Development

The fibula is ossified from three centers, one for the shaft, and one for either end. Ossification begins in the body about the eighth week of fetal life, and extends toward the extremities. At birth the ends are cartilaginous.

Ossification commences in the lower end in the second year, and in the upper about the fourth year. The lower epiphysis, the first to ossify, unites with the body about the twentieth year; the upper epiphysis joins about the twenty-fifth year.

Head

The upper extremity or head of the fibula is of an irregular quadrate form, presenting above a flattened articular surface, directed upward, forward, and medialward, for articulation with a corresponding surface on the lateral condyle of the tibia. On the lateral side is a thick and rough prominence continued behind into a pointed eminence, the apex (styloid process), which projects upward from the posterior part of the head.

The prominence, at its upper and lateral part, gives attachment to the tendon of the biceps femoris and to the fibular collateral ligament of the knee-joint, the ligament dividing the tendon into two parts.

The remaining part of the circumference of the head is rough, for the attachment of muscles and ligaments. It presents in front a tubercle for the origin of the upper and anterior fibers of the peroneus longus, and a surface for the attachment of the anterior ligament of the head; and behind, another tubercle, for the attachment of the posterior ligament of the head and the origin of the upper fibers of the soleus.

Body

The body of the fibula presents four borders - the antero-lateral, the antero-medial, the postero-lateral, and the postero-medial; and four surfaces - anterior, posterior, medial, and lateral.

Borders

The antero-lateral border begins above in front of the head, runs vertically downward to a little below the middle of the bone, and then curving somewhat lateralward, bifurcates so as to embrace a triangular subcutaneous surface immediately above the lateral malleolus. This border gives attachment to an intermuscular septum, which separates the extensor muscles on the anterior surface of the leg from the peronaei longus and brevis on the lateral surface.

The antero-medial border, or interosseous crest, is situated close to the medial side of the preceding, and runs nearly parallel with it in the upper third of its extent, but diverges from it in the lower two-thirds. It begins above just beneath the head of the bone (sometimes it is quite indistinct for about 2.5 cm. below the head), and ends at the apex of a rough triangular surface immediately above the articular facet of the lateral malleolus. It serves for the attachment of the interosseous membrane, which separates the extensor muscles in front from the flexor muscles behind.

The postero-lateral border is prominent; it begins above at the apex, and ends below in the posterior border of the lateral malleolus. It is directed lateralward above, backward in the middle of its course, backward, and a little medialward below, and gives attachment to an aponeurosis which separates the peronaei on the lateral surface from the flexor muscles on the posterior surface.

The postero-medial border, sometimes called the oblique line, begins above at the medial side of the head, and ends by becoming continuous with the interosseous crest at the lower fourth of the bone. It is well-marked and prominent at the upper and middle parts of the bone. It gives attachment to an aponeurosis which separates the tibialis posterior from the soleus and flexor hallucis longus.

Surfaces

The anterior surface is the interval between the antero-lateral and antero-medial borders. It is extremely narrow and flat in the upper third of its extent; broader and grooved longitudinally in its lower third; it serves for the origin of three muscles: the extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, and peroneus tertius.

The posterior surface is the space included between the postero-lateral and the postero-medial borders; it is continuous below with the triangular area above the articular surface of the lateral malleolus; it is directed backward above, backward and medialward at its middle, directly medialward below. Its upper third is rough, for the origin of the soleus; its lower part presents a triangular surface, connected to the tibia by a strong interosseous ligament; the intervening part of the surface is covered by the fibers of origin of the flexor hallucis longus. Near the middle of this surface is the nutrient foramen, which is directed downward.

The medial surface is the interval included between the antero-medial and the postero-medial borders. It is grooved for the origin of the tibialis posterior.

The lateral surface is the space between the antero-lateral and postero-lateral borders. It is broad, and often deeply grooved; it is directed lateralward in the upper two-thirds of its course, backward in the lower third, where it is continuous with the posterior border of the lateral malleolus. This surface gives origin to the peronaei longus and brevis.

Clinical significance

As much of the fibula can be removed without it impacting an individual's ability to walk, the fibula is utilised as a source of bone material in fibular free flap surgeries.

Fractures

The most common type of fibula fracture is located at the distal end of the bone, and is classified as ankle fracture. In the Danis–Weber classification it has three categories:

* Type A: Fracture of the lateral malleolus, distal to the syndesmosis (the connection between the distal ends of the tibia and fibula).
* Type B: Fracture of the fibula at the level of the syndesmosis
* Type C: Fracture of the fibula proximal to the syndesmosis.

A Maisonneuve fracture is a spiral fracture of the proximal third of the fibula associated with a tear of the distal tibiofibular syndesmosis and the interosseous membrane. There is an associated fracture of the medial malleolus or rupture of the deep deltoid ligament.

An avulsion fracture of the head of the fibula refers to the fracture of the fibular head because of a sudden contraction of the biceps femoris muscle that pulls its site of attachment on the bone. The attachment of the biceps femoris tendon on the fibular head is closely related to the lateral collateral ligament of the knee. Therefore, this ligament is prone to injury in this type of avulsion fracture.

Additional Information

The fibula is a slender, cylindrical leg bone that is located on the posterior portion of the limb. It is found next to another long bone known as the tibia. A long bone is defined as one whose body is longer than it is wide.

Like other long bones, the fibula has a proximal end (with a head and neck), a shaft, and a distal end. The fibula and tibia run parallel to each other in the leg and are similar in length but the fibula is much thinner than the tibia. This is indicative of the weight-bearing contributions of each bone. In other words, the thicker tibia has a much greater function in weight-bearing than the fibula.

There are several key facts about the fibula that most anatomy students should be familiar with. These and other important points about the anatomy, blood supply, innervation, and muscular and ligamentous attachments are addressed in this article. The article will also discuss important fractures of the fibula.

Development

The fibula is a part of the appendicular skeleton and develops via endochondral ossification. There are three points at which ossification begins in the fibula:

* the body around the 8th gestational week
* the distal end by the end of the first year of life
* the proximal end at around four-years-old in males and three-years-old in females

The ossification centers of the body and distal end of the bone eventually fuse during the mid-adolescent years (at 15 years old for females and 17 years old for males). The bony centers of the proximal part and shaft of the fibula are the last to unite during the late adolescent years (around 17 years for females and 19 years for males).

Proximal end

The proximal end of the fibula is characterized by an irregularly shaped head and a short neck. It has three segments which project in different directions: anteriorly, posteriorly, and laterally. An important question that pops up on a lot of anatomy tests is with what bony structure does the head of the fibula articulate? There is a round, flattened area on the medial part of the fibular head known as a facet. It articulates with a complementary facet on the inferolateral part of the lateral tibial condyle (proximal tibiofibular joint). The facet also acts as a point of attachment for the tibiofibular capsular ligament. Additionally, the tibiofibular capsular ligament surrounds the articular facet of the fibula.

There is a styloid process of the fibula that extends superiorly from the head; it is more commonly referred to as the apex of the head of the fibula. This apical projection protrudes from the posterolateral part of the fibular head. The neck of the fibula is a short bare region just below the fibular head. What important structures pass around the neck of the fibula? Importantly, the common fibular nerve (also called the common peroneal nerve) travels posterolaterally to the fibular neck. This has clinical significance as trauma to the neck of the fibula can present with neurological deficits.

The function of the proximal end of the fibula is to provide points of attachment for minor supporting ligaments of the knee joint. There is the fibular collateral ligament that arises from the fibular apex and is surrounded by the tendon of biceps femoris.

Body

The majority of the fibula is made up by its body (or shaft). This part of the bone is triangular in cross-section and consequently has three borders (anterior, interosseous, and posterior) and three surfaces (lateral, medial, and posterior) found along the shaft of the fibula. The borders are the sharp longitudinal edges that run along the bone’s long axis. On the other hand, the surfaces are the flattened areas that exist between the borders.

The anterior border starts at the fibular head and continues distally toward the lateral malleolus, where it diverges into two ridges that surround the triangular subcutaneous surface. On the medial aspect of the fibula is the interosseous or medial border. It is the point of attachment of the fibrous interosseous membrane of the leg that forms the middle tibiofibular joint. This fibrous septum acts as a barrier between the extensor and fibular muscles. There is a posterior border that runs along the back part of the fibula. The proximal part of the border appears slightly rounded. However, the border becomes more prominent distally, as it approaches the medial segment of the lateral malleolus.

The interosseous and anterior borders of the fibula act as medial and lateral boundaries of the medial surface. This surface provides a point of attachment for the muscles that extend the foot and cause the toes to point upward (dorsiflexion).

The lateral surface is found on the opposite side of the medial surface, between the posterior and anterior borders. The proximal part of the surface faces laterally; however, the surface spirals toward the distal end and as such part of the surface faces posterolaterally. By virtue of this shift, the distal part of the lateral surface is in continuity with the posterior groove of the lateral malleolus. The lateral surface provides a point of attachment for the fibular (peroneal) muscles.

The posterior surface is found between the posterior and interosseous borders. The surface is much more narrow at the proximal part (where the interosseous and posterior borders are closest) than it is distally (where the borders are farthest apart). This surface provides attachment for the flexor muscles of the foot which are responsible for pointing the toes downward (plantar flexion).

Distal end

The distal end of the fibula forms the lateral malleolus of the lower limb. This is a bony projection noted on the lateral surface of the ankle, which is complementary to another bony projection on the medial aspect of the ankle called the medial malleolus (formed by the tibia). The lateral malleolus extends posteroinferiorly, is round and rough anteriorly, and has a broad groove posteriorly. The lateral surface is covered by skin (so there is no muscular layer at this area) and the medial surface has a triangular area that is convex along the vertical axis. The distal end of the fibula tapers off as an apical projection that articulates with the lateral aspect of the talus.

The distal end provides attachment for several ligaments that support the ankle joint. The posterior tibiofibular, posterior talofibular, calcaneofibular, and interosseous (middle) tibiofibular ligaments all have attachments to the end of the fibula and participate in the stability of this joint.

Joints

The tibia and fibula articulate through three joints–the superior, middle, and inferior tibiofibular joints. The superior tibiofibular joint is a plane synovial joint (allows only gliding movement) with the transverse joint line spanning the lateral tibial condyle and the medial fibular head. The capsule is thickened anteriorly and posteriorly and joins with the anterior ligament of the fibular head, relating closely to the tendon of biceps femoris.

The tibia and fibula also articulate via an interosseous membrane that is also called the middle tibiofibular ligament. It is made of an aponeurotic lamina which is thin and made of oblique fibers. This ligament has medial and lateral attachments to the tibial and fibular interosseous margins respectively. The membrane separates the muscles in the back of the leg from the muscles located in the front of the leg.

The inferior tibiofibular joint is a syndesmosis joint (slightly movable, fibrous joint), just above the ankle region which lies between the medial distal end of the fibula and the concave fibular notch region of the lateral tibia. There is no fibrous capsule surrounding this joint but there is the anterior tibiofibular ligament which descends laterally between the two leg bones.

Muscle attachments

What is the function of the fibula? The bone provides a point of origin for a number of muscles of the foot. However, only one muscle inserts on this long bone. So what structures are attached to the fibula? The table below summarizes the muscles that originate from, and insert on the fibula. Note that the muscles are listed from cranial to caudal, and those attached to the anterior surface are listed before those on the posterior surface.

Blood supply and innervation

A branch of the fibular artery brings oxygen-rich blood to supply the bone. It travels through a nutrient foramen on the posterior surface of the fibula that facilitates passage of a branch of the fibular artery into the bone. The foramen is a few centimeters proximal to the midpoint of the shaft.

The nerves that supply the knee (genicular branch of the common fibular nerve) and ankle (deep fibular nerve) joints also innervate the proximal and distal ends of the fibula, respectively. Similarly, superficial and deep fibular nerves, which innervate the muscles attached to the fibula, also innervate the fibular periosteum.

Q: When do you go at red and stop at green?
A: When you're eating a watermelon.
* * *
Q: Why do watermelons have fancy weddings?
A: Because they cantaloupe.
* * *
Q: What happens if life gives you melons?
A: Your Dyslexic.
* * *
Q: What do you call a honeydew that is depressed?
A: Melon-choly.
* * *
Q: Did you see the cantaloupe in a suit?
A: It looked like a melon bucks.
* * *

Switzerland

Gist

Switzerland is famous for its stunning Alpine scenery, high-quality watches, delicious chocolate and cheese, political neutrality, and efficient transport, blending traditional charm with modern innovation in finance and technology, making it known for luxury, precision, and breathtaking natural beauty. 

Switzerland is famous for its neutrality, diverse languages (German, French, Italian, Romansh), high quality of life, precise watches, and rich chocolate, all set within stunning Alpine landscapes featuring numerous lakes and mountains. Key facts include its unique square flag, non-EU membership, efficient trains, and a tradition of high gun ownership alongside its neutrality. 

Summary

Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located at the intersection of Central, Western, and Southern Europe. It is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Austria and Liechtenstein to the east, and Italy to the south. Switzerland is geographically divided among the Swiss Alps, the Swiss Plateau, and the Jura Mountains; the Alps cover most of the country's territory, whereas the majority of its 9 million people are concentrated on the plateau, which hosts many of the largest cities and economic centres, including Zurich, Geneva, Basel, Bern, Lausanne, Winterthur, and Lucerne.

Switzerland is a federal republic composed of 26 cantons, with Bern serving as the federal city and the seat of the national government. The country encompasses four principal linguistic and cultural regions—German, French, Italian, and Romansh—reflecting a long-standing tradition of multilingualism and cultural pluralism. Swiss national identity nonetheless remains fairly cohesive, rooted in a shared historical background, common values such as federalism and direct democracy, and Alpine symbolism. Swiss nationhood transcends language, ethnicity, and religion, leading to Switzerland being described as a Willensnation ("nation of volition") rather than a conventional nation state.

The country originates from the Old Swiss Confederacy established in the Late Middle Ages as a defensive and commercial alliance; the Federal Charter of 1291 is considered the country's founding document. The confederation steadily expanded and consolidated despite external threats and internal political and religious strife. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The confederation was among the first and few republics of the early modern period, and the only one besides San Marino to survive the Napoleonic Wars. Switzerland remained a network of self-governing states until 1798, when revolutionary France invaded and imposed the centralist Helvetic Republic. Napoleon abolished the republic in 1803 and reinstated a confederation. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Switzerland restored its pre-revolutionary system, but by 1830 faced growing division and conflict between liberal and conservative movements; this culminated in a new constitution in 1848 that established the current federal system and enshrined principles such as individual rights, separation of powers, and parliamentary bicameralism.

Switzerland has maintained a policy of armed neutrality since the 16th century and has not fought an international war since 1815. It joined the Council of Europe in 1964 and the United Nations (UN) in 2002, pursuing an active foreign policy that includes frequent involvement in peace building and global governance. Switzerland is the birthplace of the Red Cross and hosts the headquarters or offices of most major international institutions, including the WTO, the WHO, the ILO, FIFA, the WEF, and the UN. It is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and participates in the European single market and the Schengen Area. Switzerland is among the world's most developed countries, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. It performs highly on several international metrics, including economic competitiveness, democratic governance, and press freedom. Zurich, Geneva and Basel rank among the highest in quality of life, albeit with some of the highest costs of living. Switzerland has a longstanding banking and financial sector, advanced pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries, and a strong tradition of watchmaking, precision engineering, and technology. It is known for its chocolate and cheese production, well-developed tourism industry, and growing startup sector.

Details

Switzerland is a federated country of central Europe. Switzerland’s administrative capital is Bern, while Lausanne serves as its judicial center. Switzerland’s small size—its total area is about half that of Scotland—and its modest population give little indication of its international significance.

A landlocked country of towering mountains, deep Alpine lakes, grassy valleys dotted with neat farms and small villages, and thriving cities that blend the old and the new, Switzerland is the nexus of the diverse physical and cultural geography of western Europe, renowned for both its natural beauty and its way of life. Aspects of both have become bywords for the country, whose very name conjures images of the glacier-carved Alps beloved of writers, artists, photographers, and outdoor sports enthusiasts from around the world.

For many outsiders, Switzerland also evokes a prosperous if rather staid and unexciting society, an image that is now dated. Switzerland remains wealthy and orderly, but its mountain-walled valleys are far more likely to echo the music of a local rock band than a yodel or an alphorn. Most Swiss live in towns and cities, not in the idyllic rural landscapes that captivated the world through Johanna Spyri’s Heidi (1880–81), the country’s best-known literary work. Switzerland’s cities have emerged as international centers of industry and commerce connected to the larger world, a very different tenor from Switzerland’s isolated, more inward-looking past. As a consequence of its remarkably long-lived stability and carefully guarded neutrality, Switzerland—Geneva, in particular—has been selected as headquarters for a wide array of governmental and nongovernmental organizations, including many associated with the United Nations (UN)—an organization the Swiss resisted joining until the early 21st century.

Switzerland’s rugged topography and multicultural milieu have tended to emphasize difference. People living in close proximity may speak markedly distinct, sometimes nearly mutually unintelligible dialects of their first language, if not a different language altogether. German, French, Italian, and Romansh all enjoy national status, and English is spoken widely. Invisible lines separate historically Protestant from historically Roman Catholic districts, while the tall mountains of the St. Gotthard Pass separate northern from southern Europe and their diverse sensibilities and habits. Yet, Switzerland has forged strength from all these differences, creating a peaceful society in which individual rights are carefully balanced against community and national interests.

Switzerland was formed in 1291 by an alliance of cantons against the Habsburg dynasty—the Confoederatio Helvetica (or Swiss Confederation), from which the abbreviation CH for Switzerland derives—though only in 1848, when a new constitution was adopted, was the present nation formed. Prior to 1848, internal conflict was quite common, but Switzerland has enjoyed relative domestic tranquility since the mid-19th century, and its organization has remained essentially the same: it is a union of more than 3,000 communes, or municipalities, situated in 26 cantons, six of which are traditionally referred to as demicantons (half cantons) but function as full cantons. Ordinary citizens are able to participate at every level of politics and regularly exercise their will in referenda and initiatives, through which Swiss citizens directly make numerous policy decisions at the national and subnational levels. Two effects of this popular involvement are evident: Swiss taxes are rather low by European standards, because voters are able to review and approve a broad range of expenditures, and political decision making tends to be slow, because contending individual claims and opinions must be allowed to be expressed at every step.

That high level of citizen involvement prompted the renowned 20th-century Swiss playwright and ironist Friedrich Dürrenmatt to allegorize Switzerland as a prison in which each Swiss citizen was at the same time prisoner and guard. Even so, the Swiss blend of federalism and direct democracy is unique in the world and is considered central to the country’s political and economic success. And Switzerland is indeed a major economic power, thanks to its long tradition of financial services and high-quality, specialized manufactures of items such as precision timepieces, optics, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals, as well as of specialty foodstuffs such as Emmentaler cheese and milk chocolate. Switzerland is regularly judged to have among the world’s highest standards of living.

Bern is a placid city whose name derives from the bear pits the canton’s medieval rulers established there as a heraldic symbol; the bear pits are now part of the city’s popular zoo. A metropolis extending along a large lake where the mountains meet the plains, Zürich is by far the country’s largest and most cosmopolitan city, its famed Bahnhofstrasse rivaling shopping districts found in other leading cities in the world. Basel and Lucerne are major German-speaking cities, Geneva and Lausanne the centers of the country’s French-speaking cantons, and Bellinzona and Lugano the principal cities in the Italian-speaking Ticino.

Switzerland has long been a model multiethnic, multilingual society, a place in which diverse peoples can live in social harmony and unite in common interest.

Land

Switzerland is bordered to the west by France, to the north by Germany, to the east by Austria and Liechtenstein, and to the south by Italy. It extends about 135 miles (220 km) from north to south and 220 miles (350 km) at its widest extent from west to east. Switzerland’s landscape is among the world’s most unusual, and it has long had to contend with a variety of environmental problems that threaten its integrity. Economic development and high population density have caused severe environmental stress, resulting in pollution and debates over the use of natural resources. During the 1970s and ’80s, ambitious environmental policies were implemented by the cantons and municipalities, and this led to impressive progress on pollution abatement. For example, air-pollution emissions in Switzerland are among the lowest in industrialized countries.

Relief and drainage

Situated at the hydrographic center of Europe, Switzerland is the source of many major rivers. The two most important are the Rhône, which flows into the Mediterranean Sea, and the Rhine, which empties into the North Sea. Switzerland’s small area contains an unusual diversity of topographic elements, which are divisible into three distinct regions: the Jura Mountains in the northwest, the Alps to the south and east, and the Mittelland, or central plateau, between the two mountain ranges.

The Jura (Celtic: “Forest”), a rolling mountain range in the northwest, occupies about one-eighth of the country. The region was formed under the extended impact of the general Alpine folding, which created the folded Jura that abuts the Mittelland and the tabular plateau Jura that forms the northern edge of the range. Jurassic limestone and marl with rich fossil content are the characteristic rocks that dip below the Mittelland and appear again in the pre-Alps. The limestone has been eroded in typical karst fashion, with sinkholes, caves, and underground drainage common. The ridges, covered with meadows and only sparsely forested, receive more precipitation than do the valleys, the slopes of which are wooded. Between Saint-Imier Valley (Vallon St. Imier) and the Doubs, a river that forms part of the border with France, the Jura has been reduced by denudation to form an undulating plateau that extends into France. Known as the Franches Montagnes (French: “Free Mountains”), a name acquired in 1384 when the bishop of Basel freed the inhabitants from taxation to encourage settlement of the remote area, this tableland is characterized by mixed agriculture and dairying. The highest point in the Jura, Monte Tendre, at about 5,500 feet (1,700 meters), is well below the Alps; indeed, the Jura was not a significant barrier to surface movement even before modern railroads and highways were constructed. Entrenched transverse valleys known as cluses have been eroded across the Jura ridges, providing relatively easy routes for transportation. The climate of the Jura, which has abundant precipitation, is the most continental of Switzerland; cross-country skiing is popular during the long winters. Switzerland’s watchmaking industry had its beginning in these mountains.

The Alps were built of large complexes of massed overthrusts of extremely varied sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks that were shaped by glaciation. The canton of Valais contains many striking Alpine peaks, including the Dufourspitze on the Monte Rosa massif, at 15,203 feet (4,634 meters) the highest point in Switzerland; the Weisshorn (14,780 feet [4,405 meters]), overlooking the valley called the Mattertal; the Dom (14,912 feet [4,545 meters]), above the village of Saas Fee; and the ice-sculpted Matterhorn (14,691 feet [4,478 meters]), long a symbol of Switzerland. The northern and southern Swiss Alps are separated by the trough formed by the Rhône and upper Rhine valleys, the narrowest portion being the Urseren valley, which lies between two crystalline central massifs, the Gotthard and the Aare.

The Alps’ role as the European watershed is most apparent in the central Alpine region of Switzerland, where the different chains meet; from there the Rhône River flows west, the Rhine River east, the Ticino River south to the Po River, and the Reuss River north to the Aare. The fundamental Alpine source point, however, is located in the upper Engadin valley at the Piz Lunghin, from which streams flow toward the North and Adriatic seas and from which the headwaters of the Inn River flow toward the Danube and ultimately into the Black Sea.

The country’s geographically destined role as guardian of Europe’s natural trans-Alpine routes has been both a reason for and a basic tenet of its existence—a role expressed in its traditional neutrality in times of war. In the central Alpine region lies the St. Gotthard route, the first and shortest north-south passage through the mountains and an important European linkage; it was opened in the early 13th century with the construction of a bridge in the Schöllenen Gorge, which traverses the northern chain, while the southern range is crossed by the St. Gotthard Pass at an elevation of 6,916 feet (2,108 meters). The 9-mile (14-km) St. Gotthard rail tunnel through the pass was opened in 1882; a twin 10.5-mile (17-km) road tunnel was opened in 1980.

Despite the tunnels, increasing rail and highway traffic often resulted in long delays through the mountains. For example, on weekends during the peak summer tourist season, cars and trucks were often backed up some 10 to 15 miles (16 to 25 km). To address this congestion, in 1992 Swiss voters approved the construction of a massive 35-mile (57-km) rail tunnel well beneath the existing St. Gotthard tunnels. Primary excavation was completed in 2010, and upon its official opening in June 2016, the Gotthard Base Tunnel was the longest and most deeply set rail tunnel in the world. Because the tunnel was excavated at virtually zero-grade, it could accommodate high-speed trains that would slash travel times between northern and southern Europe and reduce traffic-choked-up Alpine roads.

Between the Jura and main Alpine ranges lies the hilly Mittelland, accounting for nearly one-fourth of the country and enclosed by the two mountain ranges and the two largest lakes, Lake Geneva (Lac Léman) in the west and Lake Constance (Bodensee) in the east. The fertile rolling land of the Mittelland is the agricultural heartland of the country and is where the majority of Swiss settlements, population, and industry are situated. Furthermore, vital east-west highway and rail routes bind the urban areas. As a result, the Mittelland is highly urbanized, with large chunks of land sterilized by shopping centers, housing estates, motorways, oil-storage tanks, container depots, warehouses, automobile distribution centers, and industrial complexes.

Soils

Soil conditions and agriculture reflect the diversity of Switzerland’s climate and geologic structure. The major soil groups consist of gray-brown podzolic soils and brown forest soils, loess, glacial drift, and alluvium in the Mittelland; brown forest soils, rendzinas, and the heavier glacial clays in the Jura valleys; and the lithosol and podzolized soils of the high Alps.

Climate of Switzerland

Four major European climates affect Switzerland. From the west, influenced by the North Atlantic Drift, come mild and moist air masses; dry and cold air arrives from the North Arctic areas; continental air from the east brings dry colder air in winter and warmer air in summer; and relatively moist and warm air flows northward from the Mediterranean. The mixing of these air masses over Switzerland produces weather patterns that not only change according to which air masses are involved but also are characterized by great variation in temperature and precipitation because of local relief.

Wind systems

Prevailing winds are mainly from the west, but in valleys air currents are channeled into particularly frequent or violent local winds such as the Bise, a cold northeast wind that sweeps across the Mittelland and funnels down Lake Geneva to the city of Geneva. Foehn (German: Föhn) winds, which are associated with the leading edge of a low-pressure system moving across Europe north of Switzerland, often blow for one or two days; though they may occur anytime during the year, they are most frequent in spring. Sudden temperature increases occur because the foehn, which crosses the Alps from south to north (it can also blow from north to south, affecting Ticino), cools at a slower rate rising over the mountains because of precipitation; it is then heated and dried as it descends down the northern valleys, thereby moderating the climate on the northern slopes of the Alps.

Precipitation

Since rainfall tends to increase in direct proportion to altitude, precipitation varies according to relief. Thus, because of the marked variation in relief that characterizes Switzerland, differences in precipitation within short linear distances are often very great. For example, Sankt Gallen (St. Gall), at 2,556 feet (779 meters), has an average annual precipitation of about 50 inches (1,300 mm), while precipitation at Säntis, at an elevation of 8,202 feet (2,500 meters) but only some 12 miles (20 km) away, is more than 110 inches (2,800 mm). The average annual precipitation of three-fourths of the country exceeds 40 inches (1,000 mm), varying amounts of which fall as snow. In Lugano (at 896 feet [273 meters]), which is located in the canton of Ticino in the southeast and has a modified Mediterranean climate, little precipitation is in the form of snow; in Zürich (at 1,824 feet [556 meters]) about one-tenth is snow; and on the Säntis nearly three-fourths is snow. At elevations above 11,500 feet (3,500 meters), all precipitation is in the form of snow, which compacts into perpetual snowfields and glaciers; the snow line is at about 9,200 feet (2,800 meters) in the northern Alps and about 10,800 feet (3,300 meters) in the southern Alps of the Valais.

Dry areas

There are distinct dry pockets in the mountains of Switzerland’s interior. The best-known dry area is the Rhône valley in the Valais, which is closely encircled by the highest (13,000 feet [4,000 meters]) mountain groups. Although precipitation is slight on the slopes near the cantonal capital of Sion (at 1,581 feet [482 meters]), extensive irrigation is possible, since the valley is surrounded by large snowfields and by glaciers that extend down the upper valleys. The rarefied and dry though somewhat polluted air of such high-altitude towns as Davos (5,216 feet [1,590 meters]) and Arosa (5,987 feet [1,825 meters]) permits a more intense, broader-spectrum solar irradiation and thus produces a climate famous in the past for tuberculosis cures. Today the climate attracts skiers as well as tourists seeking an escape from the polluted air of lowland Europe. At elevations of 13,000 feet (4,000 meters), precipitation levels rise to some 160 inches (4,000 mm), and the Mönch (13,448 feet [4,099 meters]) in the Jungfrau group of mountains has the highest average annual precipitation in Switzerland, 163 inches (4,140 mm), while Stalden in the entrenched Vispa valley, 4 miles (6 km) south of the main Rhône valley, has the lowest, 21 inches (533 mm).

Skies and temperatures

The stable high-pressure weather conditions prevailing over central Europe and the Alps during autumn and winter create cold air masses that result in lowland fog, a climatic phenomenon with widely varying consequences. The mouths of the northern Alpine valleys, the basins of the Jura Mountains, and the villages and cities of the low areas of the Mittelland are blanketed for days and often for weeks on end, while towns located at higher altitudes enjoy warm, brilliant, high-pressure conditions and the view of the glistening sea of fog below them. Temperature inversions between mountain and valley locations in close proximity can be quite pronounced, with higher elevations having higher temperature readings. Frequent temperature inversion has made Switzerland’s high-altitude resorts healthful places even during winter and has helped the Alpine winter season gain popularity in Europe for sports; in addition, because of these inversions polluted air is much less common in areas of high elevation than in the lowlands. In fact, the temperature inversions that affect the Mittelland tend to trap polluted air for weeks when cyclonic activity stagnates.

Avalanches

With the increase in winter tourism, the study of avalanches has developed as a branch of Alpine climatology, and in wintertime the research station near Davos releases daily avalanche bulletins as a warning for villagers and tourists. The Alpine cantons have about 10,000 avalanches annually, with about four-fifths of them occurring in February, March, and April. For centuries, village communes have relied on forests on the mountain slopes for protection from these slides, because a 20- to 30-year-old forest can inhibit or stop small avalanches. Villages, highways, and Alpine paths are also protected by costly artificial structures such as metal barriers, earthen walls, and concrete wedges and enclosures. However, in the late 20th century, acid rain caused the illness and death of many trees in the mountain areas of Switzerland and posed a serious threat to their ability to act as barriers to avalanches. In the mountain forests, some two-fifths of the trees were classified as damaged, sick, or dying. Pollution-control legislation across Europe did much to reduce the harmful effects of acid rain in Switzerland, and a concerted effort was made by Swiss land managers to introduce healthy trees into unused Alpine pastureland and to increase the density of existing Alpine forests. By the early 21st century, avalanche-control forests had become healthier and denser, especially at higher elevations and in steeper terrain.

Plant and animal life:

Vegetation

Vegetation in Switzerland is derived from that of the four European climatic regions that converge in the country and has been influenced by the varied relief. It includes the beeches and oaks of the maritime west; hornbeam and larch trees in the more continental east, predominantly in the Engadin and the dry Valais; extensive spruce forests in the northern subalpine region; and chestnut groves in the south. Differences in vegetation are evident in the Alpine valleys because of exposure to the sun. The vegetation boundaries are several hundred feet higher in the south of the country—for example, in Valais—than in the north because of the southern exposure. Alpine vegetation, similar to that of Arctic tundra, prevails above the tree line. It is very susceptible to erosion through skiing impacts and as a result of paths or four-wheel-drive trails cut into the slopes.

Animal life

Switzerland’s animal life is primarily Alpine, but a mixture of species familiar to southern and north-central Europe is also found. Animal life is protected, except during a brief annual hunting season. Alpine tourists may observe marmots, which live in the high meadows, and chamois. Large herds of the round ibex, which had died out in the Swiss Alps and has since been reintroduced, populate several areas, especially in the Bernina region of Graubünden (canton) and in the Saastal of Valais. In the forests there are deer, rabbits, foxes, badgers, squirrels, and many varieties of birds, including eagles, while lake and river trout may be found but are no longer as abundant as in the past. Snakes and lizards are concentrated in the south, but insects, in great variety, are diffused throughout the country.

Additional Information

Switzerland is a small mountainous country located in central Europe. This landlocked country is about the size of New Jersey and is between France and Italy. It is also bordered by Austria, Germany, and Liechtenstein.

Most of the population lives in the plateau which is between the high Alps in the south and the Jura mountains in the north. The mountainous area in the south is sparsely populated.

People and Culture

Switzerland is one of the world’s wealthiest countries. The Swiss are well known for their watches and clocks.

There is not a single official language in Switzerland. People speak one of several languages, including Swiss German, French, and Italian.

Nature

The Swiss Alps are high, snow-covered mountains most of which are over 13,000 feet (4,000 meters). The most famous peak is the Matterhorn which is 14,692 feet (4,478 meters) tall, but the highest peak is Dufourspitze at 15,203 feet (4,634 meters).

Scientists are concerned that glaciers in the Swiss Alps have lost a lot of ice coverage in the past 40 years. This may be related to global climate change. Rapid melting of the glaciers could cause flooding to the villages below.

Most animals in Switzerland live in the mountains. The ibex, a species of mountain goat, was hunted to near extinction in the early 1800s. The species has since been reintroduced and more than 15,000 ibex now live in the Swiss Alps. Hikers may also encounter chamois, another goatlike animal, and marmots. The forests of Switzerland are also home to deer, rabbits, foxes, badgers, squirrels, and many bird species.

Government

The country is made up of 26 cantons or states, which form the confederation. The leader of the government is the president. Both the president and vice president are elected by the Federal Assembly from the Federal Council. They serve a one-year term. Elections are usually held in December.

Representatives of the cantons are elected to the assembly for four-year terms.

History

Switzerland was formed in 1291 as a union of three states and became an independent country in 1815. The constitution, adopted in 1848, does not allow for troops to be sent to serve in foreign wars. The country has remained neutral in conflicts around the world, including both world wars.

Switzerland did not become a member of the United Nations until 2002, and is not a member of the European Union.