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#1 Re: Exercises » Compute the solution: » Yesterday 23:36:15
Hi,
Well done!
2632.
#2 This is Cool » Malic Acid » Yesterday 18:21:06
- Jai Ganesh
- Replies: 0
Malic Acid
Gist
Malic acid (C4H6O5) : Malic acid is found in apples, which is where its name comes from. It is also naturally present in other fruits like cherries, grapes, apricots, and watermelons, as well as in some vegetables such as carrots and broccoli.
* Apples: The name "malic" is derived from the Latin word malum, meaning apple, as it is the fruit where this acid is most abundant.
* Other fruits: It's also found in cherries, grapes, apricots, and watermelons.
* Vegetables: Some vegetables, including carrots and broccoli, also contain malic acid.
* Role in fruit: Malic acid is responsible for the sour taste in many fruits.
It is a dicarboxylic organic acid naturally found in fruits, known for its sour taste and tartness.
It is used as a food additive to enhance flavors, an ingredient in some medical and dental products, and in technical applications like metal cleaning. Malic acid is also produced by all living organisms during cellular metabolism.
Summary
Malic acid is an alpha hydroxy acid found in certain fruits and wines. It's used in foods and cosmetics, and sometimes as medicine.
Malic acid is sour and acidic. This helps to clear away dead skin cells when applied to the skin. Its sourness also helps to make more saliva in people with dry mouth. Malic acid is also involved in the Krebs cycle. This is a process the body uses to make energy.
People commonly use malic acid for dry mouth. It is also used for acne, fibromyalgia, fatigue, wrinkled skin, and many other conditions, but there is no good scientific evidence to support these uses.
Malic acid is an alpha hydroxy acid. Don't confuse it with other alpha hydroxy acids (AHAs).
Uses & Effectiveness:
Possibly Effective for
Dry mouth. Using a mouth spray or sucking on a lozenge containing malic acid seems to improve symptoms of dry mouth.
There is interest in using malic acid for a number of other purposes, but there isn't enough reliable information to say whether it might be helpful.
Side Effects
When taken by mouth: Malic acid is commonly consumed in foods. Malic acid is possibly safe when used as a medicine for up to 6 months.
When applied to the inside of the mouth: Malic acid is possibly safe when used in a mouth spray or lozenge for up to 6 months.
When applied to the skin: There isn't enough reliable information to know if malic acid is safe. It might cause side effects such as skin and eye irritation.
Details
Malic acid is an organic compound with the molecular formula HO2CCH(OH)CH2CO2H. It is a dicarboxylic acid that is made by all living organisms, contributes to the sour taste of fruits, and is used as a food additive. Malic acid has two stereoisomeric forms (L- and D-enantiomers), though only the L-isomer exists naturally. The salts and esters of malic acid are known as malates. The malate anion is a metabolic intermediate in the citric acid cycle.
Biochemistry
L-Malic acid is the naturally occurring form, whereas a mixture of L- and D-malic acid is produced synthetically.
Malate plays an important role in biochemistry. In the C4 carbon fixation process, malate is a source of CO2 in the Calvin cycle. In the citric acid cycle, (S)-malate is an intermediate, formed by the addition of an -OH group on the si face of fumarate. It can also be formed from pyruvate via anaplerotic reactions.
Malate is also synthesized by the carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate in the guard cells of plant leaves. Malate, as a double anion, often accompanies potassium cations during the uptake of solutes into the guard cells in order to maintain electrical balance in the cell. The accumulation of these solutes within the guard cell decreases the solute potential, allowing water to enter the cell and promote aperture of the stomata.
In food
Malic acid was first isolated from apple juice by Carl Wilhelm Scheele in 1785. Antoine Lavoisier in 1787 proposed the name acide malique, which is derived from the Latin word for apple, mālum—as is its genus name Malus. In German it is named Äpfelsäure (or Apfelsäure) after plural or singular of a sour thing from the apple fruit, but the salt(s) are called Malat(e). Malic acid is the main acid in many fruits, including apricots, blackberries, blueberries, cherries, grapes, mirabelles, peaches, pears, plums, and quince, and is present in lower concentrations in other fruits, such as citrus. It contributes to the sourness of unripe apples. Sour apples contain high proportions of the acid. It is present in grapes and in most wines with concentrations sometimes as high as 5 g/L. It confers a tart taste to wine; the amount decreases with increasing fruit ripeness. The taste of malic acid is very clear and pure in rhubarb, a plant for which it is the primary flavor. It is also the compound responsible for the tart flavor of sumac spice. It is also a component of some artificial vinegar flavors, such as "salt and vinegar" flavored potato chips.
The process of malolactic fermentation converts malic acid to much milder lactic acid. Malic acid occurs naturally in all fruits and many vegetables, and is generated in fruit metabolism.
Malic acid, when added to food products, is denoted by E number E296. It is sometimes used with or in place of the less sour citric acid in sour sweets. These sweets are sometimes labeled with a warning stating that excessive consumption can cause irritation of the mouth. It is approved for use as a food additive in the EU,[13] US and Australia and New Zealand (where it is listed by its INS number 296).
Malic acid contains 10 kJ (2.39 kilocalories) of energy per gram.
Additional Information
Malic acid benefits can include acne treatment, and skin care such as exfoliation and hydration. It is an alpha hydroxy acid, found naturally in fruits and wines and used as an ingredient in medications and skin care products. Some people use it to treat symptoms of a dry mouth due to medications, and there's some research evidence that it can help.
Malate, the ionized form of malic acid, plays a small role in the Krebs cycle, the primary way our bodies generate energy. It has been used to treat chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia. More research is needed to identify and understand the health benefits of malic acid.
In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate dietary supplements the way it regulates prescription medications. As a result, some supplement products may not contain the ingredients listed on the label. When choosing a supplement, look for products independently tested or certified by organizations such as the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF), United States Pharmacopeia (USP), or ConsumerLab. For personalized guidance, consult your healthcare provider, registered dietitian nutritionist (RD or RDN), or pharmacist.
Uses of Malic Acid
Malic acid shows promise in treating certain health conditions and there's some research to suggest that oral and topical use may help. However, data from high-quality clinical trials is lacking and more evidence is needed to confirm claims about malic acid and recommend its use.
Skin Care
Malic acid is an alpha hydroxy acid, which is said to be a natural exfoliator. It may be used to smooth wrinkles and fine lines, improve skin texture, cleanse pores, and improve overall skin. Because of this, various skin care products contain malic acid.
Malic acid also is used to balance skin pH. It is considered safe for use but can irritate skin in some people.4
Kidney Stones
Researchers have studied malic acid for its potential role in preventing and treating kidney stones, a common but painful condition that occurs when mineral deposits form in the urinary tract.
Malic acid is known to inhibit the development of kidney stones. The researchers concluded that malic acid supplementation might help treat calcium kidney stones. A 2024 study of malic acid, citric acid, and other components in an herbal tea made from Bryophyllum pinnatum leaves found it offered benefits in treating kidney stones.
The findings follow other studies that suggest benefits for kidney stones. A 2016 review on the importance of a healthy diet to prevent kidney stones suggested pears, which contain malic acid, could be a potential treatment option.
#3 Re: Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity » crème de la crème » Yesterday 17:20:52
2378) Har Gobind Khorana
Gist:
Work
In the 1950s, it was established that genetic information is transferred from DNA to RNA, to protein. One sequence of three nucleotides in DNA corresponds to a certain amino acid within a protein. How could this genetic code be cracked? After Marshall Nirenberg discovered the first piece of the puzzle, the remainder of the code was gradually revealed in the years that followed. Har Gobind Khorana made important contributions to this field by building different RNA chains with the help of enzymes. Using these enzymes, he was able to produce proteins. The amino acid sequences of these proteins then solved the rest of the puzzle.
Summary
Har Gobind Khorana (born January 9, 1922?, Raipur, India [now Raipur, Pakistan]—died November 9, 2011, Concord, Massachusetts, U.S.) was an Indian-born American biochemist who shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Marshall W. Nirenberg and Robert W. Holley for research that helped to show how the nucleotides in nucleic acids, which carry the genetic code of the cell, control the cell’s synthesis of proteins.
Khorana was born into a poor family and attended the University of the Punjab at Lahore, India (now in Pakistan), and the University of Liverpool, England, on government scholarships. He obtained a Ph.D. at Liverpool in 1948. He began research on nucleic acids during a fellowship at the University of Cambridge (1951) under Sir Alexander Todd. He held fellowships and professorships in Switzerland at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, in Canada at the University of British Columbia (1952–59), and in the United States at the University of Wisconsin (1960–70). In 1966 Khorana became a naturalized citizen of the United States, and in 1971 he joined the faculty of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he remained until he retired in 2007.
In the 1960s Khorana confirmed Nirenberg’s findings that the way the four different types of nucleotides are arranged on the spiral “staircase” of the DNA molecule determines the chemical composition and function of a new cell. The 64 possible combinations of the nucleotides are read off along a strand of DNA as required to produce the desired amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Khorana added details about which serial combinations of nucleotides form which specific amino acids. He also proved that the nucleotide code is always transmitted to the cell in groups of three, called codons. Khorana also determined that some of the codons prompt the cell to start or stop the manufacture of proteins.
Khorana made another contribution to genetics in 1970, when he and his research team were able to synthesize the first artificial copy of a yeast gene. His later research explored the molecular mechanisms underlying the cell signaling pathways of vision in vertebrates. His studies were concerned primarily with the structure and function of rhodopsin, a light-sensitive protein found in the retina of the vertebrate eye. Khorana also investigated mutations in rhodopsin that are associated with retinitis pigmentosa, which causes night blindness.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Khorana received the Albert Lasker Basic Medical Research Award (1968) and the National Medal of Science (1987).
Details
Har Gobind Khorana (9 January 1922 – 9 November 2011) was an Indian-American biochemist. While on the faculty of the University of Wisconsin–Madison, he shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine with Marshall W. Nirenberg and Robert W. Holley for research that showed the order of nucleotides in nucleic acids, which carry the genetic code of the cell and control the cell's synthesis of proteins. Khorana and Nirenberg were also awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University in the same year.
Born in British India, Khorana served on the faculties of three universities in North America. He became a naturalized citizen of the United States in 1966, and received the National Medal of Science in 1987.
Biography
Har Gobind Khorana was born to Ganpatrai Khorana and Krishna Devi, in Raipur, a village in Multan, Punjab, British India, in a Punjabi Hindu Khatri family. The exact date of his birth is not certain but he believed that it might have been 9 January 1922; this date was later shown in some documents, and has been widely accepted. He was the youngest of five children. His father was a patwari, a village agricultural taxation clerk in the British Indian government. In his autobiography, Khorana wrote this summary: "Although poor, my father was dedicated to educating his children and we were practically the only literate family in the village inhabited by about 100 people. The first four years of his education were provided under a tree, a spot that was, in effect, the only school in the village. He did not even own a pencil until age 6.
He attended D.A.V. (Dayanand Anglo-Vedic) High School in Multan and Government College, in Lahore. Later, he studied at the Punjab University in Lahore, with the assistance of scholarships, where he obtained a bachelor's degree in 1943 and a Master of Science degree in 1945.
Khorana lived in British India until 1945, when he moved to England to study organic chemistry at the University of Liverpool on a Government of India Fellowship. He received his PhD in 1948 advised by Roger J. S. Beer. The following year, he pursued postdoctoral studies with Professor Vladimir Prelog at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. He worked for nearly a year on alkaloid chemistry in an unpaid position.
His family moved to Delhi from Multan as refugees during the partition of India and Khorana was never to visit his place of birth after that. During a brief period in 1949, he was unable to find a job in Delhi. He returned to England on a fellowship to work with George Wallace Kenner and Alexander R. Todd on peptides and nucleotides. He stayed in Cambridge from 1950 until 1952.
He moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, with his family in 1952 after accepting a position with the British Columbia Research Council at University of British Columbia. Khorana was excited by the prospect of starting his own lab, a colleague later recalled. His mentor later said that the council had few facilities at the time but gave the researcher "all the freedom in the world". His work in British Columbia was on "nucleic acids and synthesis of many important biomolecules" according to the American Chemical Society.
In 1960 Khorana accepted a position as co-director of the University of Wisconsin–Madison's Institute for Enzyme Research He became a professor of biochemistry in 1962 and was named Conrad A. Elvehjem Professor of Life Sciences in 1964. While at Wisconsin, "he helped decipher the mechanisms by which RNA codes for the synthesis of proteins" and "began to work on synthesizing functional genes". During his tenure at this university, he completed the work that led to sharing the Nobel Prize in 1968. The Nobel web site states that it was "for their interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis". Har Gobind Khorana's role is stated as follows: he "made important contributions to this field by building different RNA chains with the help of enzymes. Using these enzymes, he was able to produce proteins. The amino acid sequences of these proteins then solved the rest of the puzzle."
He became a US citizen in 1966. Beginning in 1970, Khorana was the Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Biology and Chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and later, a member of the Board of Scientific Governors at The Scripps Research Institute. He retired from MIT in 2007.
Har Gobind Khorana married Esther Elizabeth Sibler in 1952. They had met in Switzerland and had three children, Julia Elizabeth, Emily Anne, and Dave Roy.
#4 Re: This is Cool » Miscellany » Yesterday 16:52:14
2430) Urea
Gist
Urea, or carbamide, is an organic compound used as a fertilizer due to its high nitrogen content (46%) and also as a key ingredient in skincare products for its moisturizing and skin-smoothing properties. In the human body, it is a waste product created in the liver from protein metabolism that is then filtered by the kidneys and excreted in urine.
Urea, also known as carbamide, is a nitrogenous organic compound with the chemical formula CO[(NH)2]. It is a colorless, crystalline solid that is highly soluble in water and is the main nitrogen-containing waste product in the urine of mammals, including humans. Industrially, urea is a crucial raw material, most widely used as a high-nitrogen fertilizer.
Summary
Urea, also called carbamide (because it is a diamide of carbonic acid), is an organic compound with chemical formula CO[(NH2)2]. This amide has two amino groups (−NH2) joined by a carbonyl functional group (−C(=O)−). It is thus the simplest amide of carbamic acid.
Urea serves an important role in the cellular metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals.
It is a colorless, odorless solid, highly soluble in water, and practically non-toxic (LD50 is 15 g/kg for rats). Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor alkaline. The body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion. The liver forms it by combining two ammonia molecules (NH3) with a carbon dioxide (CO2) molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as a source of nitrogen (N) and is an important raw material for the chemical industry.
In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler discovered that urea can be produced from inorganic starting materials, an important conceptual milestone in chemistry. This showed for the first time that a substance previously known only as a byproduct of life could be synthesized in the laboratory from non-biological starting materials, thereby contradicting the widely held doctrine of vitalism, which stated that organic compounds could only be derived from living organisms.
Details
Urea is the diamide of carbonic acid. Its formula is H2NCONH2. Urea has important uses as a fertilizer and feed supplement, as well as a starting material for the manufacture of plastics and drugs. It is a colourless, crystalline substance that melts at 132.7° C (271° F) and decomposes before boiling.
Urea is the chief nitrogenous end product of the metabolic breakdown of proteins in all mammals and some fishes. The material occurs not only in the urine of all mammals but also in their blood, bile, milk, and perspiration. In the course of the breakdown of proteins, amino groups (NH2) are removed from the amino acids that partly comprise proteins. These amino groups are converted to ammonia (NH3), which is toxic to the body and thus must be converted to urea by the liver. The urea then passes to the kidneys and is eventually excreted in the urine.
Urea was first isolated from urine in 1773 by the French chemist Hilaire-Marin Rouelle. Its preparation by the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler from ammonium cyanate in 1828 was the first generally accepted laboratory synthesis of a naturally occurring organic compound from inorganic materials. Urea is now prepared commercially in vast amounts from liquid ammonia and liquid carbon dioxide. These two materials are combined under high pressures and elevated temperatures to form ammonium carbamate, which then decomposes at much lower pressures to yield urea and water.
Because its nitrogen content is high and is readily converted to ammonia in the soil, urea is one of the most concentrated nitrogenous fertilizers. An inexpensive compound, it is incorporated in mixed fertilizers as well as being applied alone to the soil or sprayed on foliage. With formaldehyde it gives methylene–urea fertilizers, which release nitrogen slowly, continuously, and uniformly, a full year’s supply being applied at one time. Although urea nitrogen is in nonprotein form, it can be utilized by ruminant animals (cattle, sheep), and a significant part of these animals’ protein requirements can be met in this way. The use of urea to make urea–formaldehyde resin is second in importance only to its use as a fertilizer. Large amounts of urea are also used for the synthesis of barbiturates.
Urea reacts with alcohols to form urethanes and with malonic esters to give barbituric acids. With certain straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons and their derivatives, urea forms crystalline inclusion compounds, which are useful for purifying the included substances.
Additional Information
Urea, also known as carbamide, is a safe, useful compound with a significant history. It is a naturally occurring molecule that is produced by protein metabolism and found abundantly in mammalian urine.
In 1828, the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler1, then at the Polytechnic School (now Technical University) of Berlin, published a seminal article in which he demonstrated that a biomolecule, urea, can be synthesized from a nonbiological starting material. Wöhler prepared the inorganic compound ammonium cyanate in the lab, then heated it, causing it to isomerize to urea. Now known as the “Wöhler synthesis”, the reaction helped to disprove the concept of vitalism, which held that “organic” molecules can be made only by living organisms.2
In a reaction similar to the Wöhler synthesis, ammonium carbamate can be converted to urea and water. This is the basis of the process that has been used to produce urea industrially for almost a century. Ammonia and carbon dioxide (CO2) react exothermically to produce the carbamate salt, which is then heated to form urea. The heat produced in the first reaction drives the second. Typically, ammonia and urea are manufactured in the same plant so that some of the carbon dioxide byproduct from ammonia production can be used to make urea.
Global urea production capacity is ≈220 million t/year. Why is urea produced in such large quantities? The answer is that, other than ammonia, urea has the highest nitrogen content of all industrial chemicals and is in high demand as a fertilizer. In the soil, it decomposes back to ammonia (actually ammonium ion) and carbon dioxide. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria oxidize ammonium to nitrate, which is readily taken up by the roots of crops. In addition to its high nitrogen content, urea is particularly useful because it can be applied as a solid in pellet form; and its unusually high solubility in water allows it to be incorporated into solutions with other plant nutrients.
More than 90% of urea production goes into agriculture. The remaining ≈20 million t made annually goes into animal feed (cattle, among others, can convert it into protein), urea–formaldehyde resins, emollients for skin care, and barbituric acid manufacture. Urea’s strongly negative heat of solution in water is the basis of instant-cold packs, in which plastic pouches contain urea and water in separate compartments. When the seal between them is broken, intermixing produces short-term cooling for aching joints and muscles.
There’s always room for improvement. In a 2018 article, British scientific writer David Bradley described ways in which urea might be used more efficiently in agriculture. And last year, in what might be termed a “urea revolution”, Shuangyin Wang and colleagues at Hunan University (Changsha, China) and other institutions described an electrochemical route to urea.
Although urea is used widely in agriculture, current urea production is decidedly not “green”. Ammonia and urea production consume >2% of the world’s energy and emit more CO2 than any other industrial process. Wang’s group developed an electrochemical method that skips ammonia and directly converts nitrogen gas, CO2, and water to urea at ambient temperature and pressure. The synthetic route is complex, and the process is not yet efficient or sufficiently productive, but the objective is certainly well worth striving toward.
#5 Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity » Coaching Quotes - III » Yesterday 16:16:49
- Jai Ganesh
- Replies: 0
Coaching Quotes - III
1. During most of my playing career, the performance gap between men and women was slowly narrowing. Federations began providing more coaching and competitions for girls and women. - Judit Polgar
2. I hope that all the Indian football players who will be with me under my coaching will show their talent and come out with great success. - Zico
3. I feel running is far easier than coaching. - P. T. Usha
4. I still love cricket and being involved. That ranges from commentating on Big Bash cricket to coaching my sons under-15 team. - Adam Gilchrist.
#6 Jokes » Banana Jokes - VI » Yesterday 15:40:51
- Jai Ganesh
- Replies: 0
Q: What is yellow on the inside and green on the outside?
A: A banana dressed up as a cucumber !
* * *
Q: What's the best way to get King Kong to sit up and beg?
A: Wave a two-ton banana in front of his nose.
* * *
Q: What would you call two banana skins?
A: A pair of slippers!
* * *
Q: What do you do if you see a blue banana?
A: Try to cheer it up.
* * *
Q: What's yellow and writes?
A: A ball-point banana.
* * *
#7 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » General Quiz » Yesterday 15:26:58
Hi,
#10637. What does the term in Biology Ecophysiology mean?
#10638. What does the term in Biology Ecosystem mean?
#8 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » English language puzzles » Yesterday 15:09:29
Hi,
#5833. What does the noun genealogy mean?
#5834. What does the noun genus mean?
#9 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » Doc, Doc! » Yesterday 14:40:26
Hi,
#2510. What does the medical term Maple syrup urine disease mean?
#10 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » 10 second questions » Yesterday 14:18:36
Hi,
#9779.
#11 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » Oral puzzles » Yesterday 14:01:16
Hi,
#6284.
#12 Re: Exercises » Compute the solution: » Yesterday 13:39:24
Hi,
2631.
#13 This is Cool » Analgesics » 2025-10-28 20:41:33
- Jai Ganesh
- Replies: 0
Analgesics
Gist
Analgesics, also known as painkillers, are medications that relieve pain without causing a loss of consciousness. They work by blocking pain signals from reaching the brain or by reducing the body's inflammation at the source of the pain. Common examples include over-the-counter drugs like aspirin and ibuprofen, and prescription opioids like morphine for severe pain.
Summary
An analgesic drug, also called simply an analgesic, antalgic, pain reliever, or painkiller, is any member of the group of drugs used for pain management. Analgesics are conceptually distinct from anesthetics, which temporarily reduce, and in some instances eliminate, sensation, although analgesia and anesthesia are neurophysiologically overlapping and thus various drugs have both analgesic and anesthetic effects.
Analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: For neuropathic pain, recent research has suggested that classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants may be considered as an alternative.
Various analgesics, such as many NSAIDs, are available over the counter in most countries, whereas various others are prescription drugs owing to the substantial risks and high chances of overdose, misuse, and addiction in the absence of medical supervision.
(NSAID : Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs).
Details
Analgesics are medications that relieve pain. They work either by reducing inflammation or by changing the way the brain processes and perceives pain. Side effects include heartburn, nausea, and headaches.
Some types of analgesics are available over the counter. However, stronger variants are available only with a prescription. This is because strong analgesics are more likely to cause side effects such as dependence, addiction, and withdrawal symptoms.
This article outlines what analgesics are, including their uses, the different types available, and how they work. It also discusses the risks and side effects of analgesics and provides information on their availability.
What are analgesics?
Analgesics are pain-relieving medications. These medications relieve pain but do not address its underlying cause. Typically, they work either by reducing inflammation at the site of pain or by changing the brain’s perception of pain.
Analgesics are available in many forms, including:
* oral medications such as tablets, capsules, and liquids
* topical creams, gels, and ointments
* suppositories
What are analgesics used for?
People take analgesics to alleviate many types of pain, including, but not limited to, the following:
* postsurgical pain
acute pain, such as:
** period pain
** headache
** toothache
** sprains or strains
** broken bones
** burns
** bites or stings
* chronic pain, such as that associated with the following conditions:
** fibromyalgia
**arthritis
** cancer
** neuropathy
Types of analgesics
There are three main types of analgesics:
* simple, non-opioid analgesics
* compound analgesics
* opioid analgesics, or “narcotics”
Doctors typically recommend that a person try simple, non-opioid analgesics before trying compound or opioid analgesics.
Examples of analgesics
Below are some examples of the different types of analgesia.
Simple, non-opioid analgesics
Simple, non-opioid analgesics are the most common form of analgesic. This group includes acetaminophen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as:
* ibuprofen
* aspirin
* naproxen
* naproxen sodium
* naproxen/esomeprazole
* diclofenac
* etodolac
* indomethacin
* nabumetone
* oxaprozin
Compound analgesics
Compound analgesics are medications containing a non-opioid along with an opioid, such as low strength codeine.
Examples include:
* co-codamol
* co-codaprin
* co-dydramol
Opioid analgesics
Opioid analgesics can be natural or synthetic. These are the strongest type of analgesics. Examples include:
* codeine
* fentanyl
* hydrocodone
* meperidine
* methadone
* morphine
* oxycodone
* tramadol.
How do analgesics work?
Different types of analgesics work in different ways.
NSAIDs work by reducing inflammation at the site of pain. They can also reduce fever.
Opioids work by activating opioid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous systems. This reduces neuronal activity, thus reducing the transmission of pain impulses. Ultimately, opioids dull pain perception and increase feelings of pleasure. These drugs are beneficial for short-term pain but can be addictive if a person takes them for extended periods.
How to take analgesics
People should take prescription analgesics according to their prescribing doctor’s instructions and should take over-the-counter (OTC) medications according to the instructions on the product label.
Analgesics are available in many forms, including:
* caplets, capsules, and tablets
* oral solutions such as drops or syrups
* topical creams, gels, or patches
* rectal suppositories
* injections
People should speak with their doctor or pharmacist if they are unsure how to take their analgesic medication. A healthcare professional will also be able to advise on the medication dosage, duration, and frequency.
Additional Information
An analgesic is any drug that relieves pain selectively without blocking the conduction of nerve impulses, markedly altering sensory perception, or affecting consciousness. This selectivity is an important distinction between an analgesic and an anesthetic.
Analgesics may be classified into two types: anti-inflammatory drugs, which alleviate pain by reducing local inflammatory responses; and the opioids, which act on the brain. The opioid analgesics were once called narcotic drugs because they can induce sleep. The opioid analgesics can be used for either short-term or long-term relief of severe pain. In contrast, the anti-inflammatory compounds are used for short-term pain relief and for modest pain, such as that of headache, muscle strain, bruising, or arthritis.
Anti-inflammatory analgesics
Most anti-inflammatory analgesics are derived from three compounds discovered in the 19th century—salicylic acid, pyrazolone, and phenacetin (or acetophenetidin). Although chemically unrelated, the drugs in these families have the ability to relieve mild to moderate pain through actions that reduce inflammation at its source. Acetylsalicylic acid, or aspirin, which is derived from salicylic acid, is the most widely used mild analgesic. It is considered the prototype for anti-inflammatory analgesics, the two other major types of which include acetaminophen (a derivative of phenacetin) and the aspirin-like drugs, or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), which include compounds such as ibuprofen, naproxen, and fenoprofen. Pyrazolone derivatives, with some exceptions, are no longer widely used in many countries, because of their tendency to cause an acute infection known as agranulocytosis.
Aspirin and NSAIDs appear to share a similar molecular mechanism of action—namely, inhibition of the synthesis of prostaglandins (natural products of inflamed white blood cells) that induce the responses in local tissue that include pain and inflammation. In fact, aspirin and all aspirin-like analgesics, including indomethacin and sulindac, which are derived from a heterocyclic organic compound known as indole, inhibit prostaglandin synthesis and release. All these agents can be further divided into nonselective COX inhibitors and selective COX inhibitors. COX, or cyclooxygenase, is an enzyme responsible for the synthesis of prostaglandins and related compounds. It has two forms, COX-1, which is found in most normal tissues, and COX-2, which is induced in the presence of inflammation. Because COX-2 is not normally expressed in the stomach, the use of COX-2 inhibitors (e.g., rofecoxib, celecoxib) seems to result in less gastric ulceration than occurs with other anti-inflammatory analgesics, particularly aspirin. However, COX-2 inhibitors do not reduce the ability of platelets to form clots, a benefit associated with aspirin and other nonselective COX inhibitors.
Preferences in COX selectivity and the possibility of additional molecular actions of NSAIDs may explain differences in the therapeutic effects between aspirin, acetaminophen, and NSAIDs. For example, while aspirin is effective in reducing fever, as well as relieving inflammation, acetaminophen and NSAIDs are more potent antipyretic (fever-reducing) analgesics. Acetaminophen, on the other hand, possesses inferior anti-inflammatory activity compared with aspirin and NSAIDs and thus is relatively ineffective in treating inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. Despite this, acetaminophen is a popular mild analgesic and antipyretic and is a suitable alternative to aspirin for patients who develop severe symptoms of stomach irritation, because it is not as harmful to the gastrointestinal tract.
As might be expected from their common mechanisms of action, many of the anti-inflammatory analgesic drugs share similar side effects. Hypersensitivity responses to aspirin-like drugs are thought to be due to an accumulation of prostaglandins after the pathways that break down prostaglandins are blocked. These responses can be fatal when very strong anti-inflammatory compounds are given. Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis may result in other serious side effects, such as peptic ulcers and a reduced ability of platelets in the blood to aggregate and form clots. The latter effect, however, has given aspirin an added use as a prophylactic antithrombotic drug to reduce chances of cardiac or cerebral vascular thrombosis—the formation of a clot in a blood vessel in the heart or brain. Some aspirin-like analgesics also have specific toxic effects: liver damage occasionally occurs after administration of acetaminophen, and renal toxicity is sometimes seen with use of NSAIDs. Aspirin itself, taken in overdose, can cause deafness, ringing in the ears, diarrhea, nausea, and headache, which disappear when the dose is reduced or stopped. Aspirin is also thought to be a causative agent of Reye syndrome, a rare and serious degenerative disease of the brain and fatty tissue of the liver that accompanies certain viral infections in children and young adults.
Opioid analgesics
The term opioid has been adopted as a general classification of all those agents that share chemical structures, sites, and mechanisms of action with the endogenous opioid agonists (endogenous substances are those produced inside the human body). Opioid substances encompass all the natural and synthetic chemical compounds closely related to morphine, whether they act as agonists (cellular activators) or antagonists (substances that block the actions of agonists). Although interest in these drugs had always been high because of their value in pain relief and because of problems of abuse and addiction, interest intensified in the 1970s and ’80s by discoveries about the naturally occurring morphinelike substances, the endogenous opioid neuropeptides.
Opium is the powder from the dried juice of the poppy Papaver somniferum. When taken orally, opium produces sleep and induces a state of peaceful well-being. Its use dates back at least to Babylonian civilization. In the early 19th century opium extract was found to contain more than 20 distinct complex organic bases, called alkaloids, of which morphine, codeine, and papaverine are the most important. These pure alkaloids replaced crude opium extracts in therapeutics.
In the 1950s several new morphinelike drugs were developed. Despite the increase in the number of compounds available for pain relief, however, little was understood of their sites and mechanisms of action. The first real breakthrough came from the discovery, by neuroscientists John W. Hughes and Hans W. Kosterlitz at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, of two potent naturally occurring analgesic pentapeptides (peptides containing five linked amino acids) in extracts of pig brain. They called these compounds enkephalins, and since then at least six more have been found. Larger peptides, called endorphins, have been isolated, and these contain sequences of amino acids that can be split off as enkephalins. There are at least three types of receptors on brain neurons that are activated by the enkephalins. Morphine and its congeners are thought to exert their effects by activating one or more of these receptors.
Opioid drugs are useful in the treatment of general postoperative pain, severe pain, and other specific conditions. The use of opioids to relieve the pain associated with kidney stones or gallstones presumably depends on their ability to affect opioid receptors in these tissues and to inhibit contractility. By a similar mechanism, opioids are also able to relieve the abdominal distress and fluid loss of diarrhea. Central receptors appear to account for the ability of morphine and analogs to suppress coughing, an effect that requires lower doses than those needed for analgesia. Low doses of opioids are also used for relief of the respiratory distress that accompanies acute cardiac insufficiency complicated by the buildup of fluid in the lungs.
Several commonly used natural or synthetic derivatives of morphine are used in drug therapeutics. Codeine, a naturally occurring opium alkaloid that can be made synthetically, is a useful oral analgesic, especially when used in combination with aspirin. Meperidine was an early synthetic analog of morphine, marketed under the trade name Demerol, that was originally thought to be able to provide significant short-lasting analgesia and little or no addiction because of its shortened duration of action; however, this belief proved false. Methadone, a synthetic opioid analgesic, has long-lasting analgesic effects (six to eight hours) when taken orally and is used to moderate the effects of withdrawal from heroin addiction. Among the opioid antagonist drugs, naloxone and its longer-lasting orally active version, naltrexone, are used primarily to reverse morphine overdoses and to reverse the chemical stupor of a wider variety of causes, including alcohol intoxication and anesthesia. In opioid overdoses, these drugs provide recovery within minutes of injection. They can, however, also precipitate severe withdrawal reactions in a person addicted to opiates.
The effectiveness of a given dose of an opioid drug declines with its repeated administration in the presence of intense pain. This loss in effectiveness is called tolerance. Evidence suggests that tolerance is not due to alterations in the brain’s responses to drugs. Animals exhibiting tolerance to morphine after repeated injections in a familiar environment show little or no tolerance when given the same doses and tested for pain sensitivity in new environments. Thus, there is almost certainly a learned aspect of tolerance. The cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying this loss of responsiveness are not clear. Physical dependence and addiction in a person using intravenous administration closely follow the dynamics of drug tolerance; increasing doses are required to produce the psychological effects, while tolerance protects the brain against the respiratory depressant actions of the drug. In the tolerant individual, intense adverse reactions can be precipitated by administration of an opioid antagonist, thus revealing the dynamic internal equilibrium that previously appeared to neutralize the response of the brain to the opioids. The signs of the withdrawal response (e.g., anxiety, tremors, elevation of blood pressure, abdominal cramps, and hyperthemia) can be viewed as signs of an activated sympathetic nervous system and to some extent an extreme, but nonspecific, arousal response.
#14 Re: Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity » crème de la crème » 2025-10-28 17:22:33
2377) Lars Onsager
Gist:
Work
Thermodynamics is about heat and its conversion into other forms of energy—basically involving statistical descriptions of atomic and molecular movements. Irreversible thermodynamic processes go in only one direction and not in the reverse. Lars Onsager analyzed mathematical equations for various irreversible thermodynamic processes and in 1931 found the connection that led him to formulate equations that came to be known as reciprocal relations. This allowed a complete description of irreversible processes.
Summary
Lars Onsager (born Nov. 27, 1903, Kristiania [now Oslo], Nor.—died Oct. 5, 1976, Coral Gables, Fla., U.S.) was a Norwegian-born American chemist whose development of a general theory of irreversible chemical processes gained him the 1968 Nobel Prize for Chemistry.
His early work in statistical mechanics attracted the attention of the Dutch chemist Peter Debye, under whose direction Onsager studied at the Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich (1926–28). He then went to the United States and taught at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, and Brown University, Providence, R.I. He received his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1935. He had joined the faculty of Yale in 1933 and became professor of theoretical chemistry there in 1945.
Onsager’s first achievement was to modify (1925) the Debye-Hückel theory of electrolytic dissociation, which describes the motions of ions in solution, to take into account Brownian movement. He received the Nobel Prize for his pioneering work in nonequilibrium thermodynamics, which applied the laws of thermodynamics to systems that are not in equilibrium—i.e., to systems in which differences in temperature, pressure, or other factors exist. Onsager also was able to formulate a general mathematical expression about the behaviour of nonreversible chemical processes that has been described as the “fourth law of thermodynamics.”
Details
Lars Onsager (November 27, 1903 – October 5, 1976) was a Norwegian American physical chemist and theoretical physicist. He held the Gibbs Professorship of Theoretical Chemistry at Yale University. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1968.
Education and early life
Lars Onsager was born in Kristiania (now Oslo), Norway. His father was a lawyer. After completing secondary school in Oslo, he attended the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH) in Trondheim, graduating as a chemical engineer in 1925. While there he worked through A Course of Modern Analysis, which was instrumental in his later work.
Career and research
In 1925 he arrived at a correction to the Debye-Hückel theory of electrolytic solutions, to specify Brownian movement of ions in solution, and during 1926 published it. He traveled to Zürich, where Peter Debye was teaching, and confronted Debye, telling him his theory was wrong. He impressed Debye so much that he was invited to become Debye's assistant at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH), where he remained until 1928.
Research:
Exact solution of the 2D Ising model
To solve the 2D Ising model, Onsager began by diagonalizing increasingly large transfer matrices. He said that it's because he had a lot of time during WWII. He began by computing the 2 × 2 transfer matrix of the 1D Ising model, which is already solved by Ising himself. He then computed the transfer matrix of the "Ising ladder", meaning two 1D Ising models side-by-side, connected by links. The transfer matrix is then 4 × 4. He repeated this for up to six 1D Ising models, resulting in transfer matrices of up to 64 × 64. He diagonalized all of them and found that all the eigenvalues were of a special form, so he guessed that the algebra of the problem was an associative algebra (later called the Onsager algebra).
The solution involved generalized quaternion algebra and the theory of elliptic functions, which he learned from A Course of Modern Analysis.
Personal life
He remained in Florida until his death from an aneurysm in Coral Gables, Florida in 1976. Onsager was buried next to John Gamble Kirkwood at New Haven's Grove Street Cemetery. While Kirkwood's tombstone has a long list of awards and positions, including the American Chemical Society Award in Pure Chemistry, the Richards Medal, and the Lewis Award, Onsager's tombstone, in its original form, simply said "Nobel Laureate". When Onsager's wife Gretel died in 1991 and was buried there, his children added an asterisk after "Nobel Laureate" and "*etc." in the lower right corner of the stone. He was identified as a Protestant.
#15 Re: This is Cool » Miscellany » 2025-10-28 17:05:41
2429) Salicylic Acid
Gist
Salicylic acid is a beta-hydroxy acid (BHA) used topically to treat various skin conditions like acne, psoriasis, and dandruff by helping to unplug pores and soften the skin. It works as a keratolytic agent, breaking down keratin, which helps shed the outer layer of skin. It's important to use sun protection while using it, avoid applying to open wounds, and consult a doctor, especially if pregnant or have sensitive skin.
Can salicylic acid be used daily?
Yes, salicylic acid can be used daily, but you should start slowly, and frequency depends on your skin type and the product's concentration. For beginners or those with sensitive or dry skin, it is best to start with 2-3 times a week and gradually increase to daily use if your skin tolerates it. Daily use is generally suitable for those with oily or acne-prone skin using products with a low concentration, such as 0.5% to 2%.
Summary
Salicylic acid is a medicated topical gel, cream, lotion or solution. It treats and prevents acne along with other skin conditions, like warts, psoriasis, calluses and corns. Salicylic acid works by breaking down layers of thick skin.
It treats many skin conditions, such as acne, psoriasis, dandruff, and warts. It works by decreasing inflammation. It also promotes skin cell turnover. This prevents clogged pores and loosens dry, scaly skin, making it easier to remove. It belongs to a group of medications called salicylates. Do not use this medication on sensitive areas of the body.
What should I tell my care team before I take this medication?
They need to know if you have any of these conditions:
* Infection especially a viral infection such as chickenpox, cold sores, or herpes
* Kidney disease
* Liver disease
* An unusual or allergic reaction to salicylic acid, other medications, foods, dyes, or preservatives
* Pregnant or trying to get pregnant
* Breast-feeding
How should I use this medication?
This medication is for external use only. Do not take by mouth. Wash your hands before and after use. If you are treating your hands, only wash your hands before use. Do not get it in your eyes. If you do, rinse your eyes with plenty of cool tap water. Use it as directed on the prescription label at the same time every day. Do not use it more often than directed. Use the medication for the full course as directed by your care team, even if you think you are better. Do not stop using it unless your care team tells you to stop it early.
Apply a thin film of the medication to the affected area.
Talk to your care team about the use of this medication in children. While it may be prescribed for children as young as 2 years for selected conditions, precautions do apply.
Overdosage: If you think you have taken too much of this medicine contact a poison control center or emergency room at once.
NOTE: This medicine is only for you. Do not share this medicine with others.
Details
Salicylic acid is an organic compound with the formula HOC6H4COOH. A colorless (or white), bitter-tasting solid, it is a precursor to and a metabolite of acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin). It is a plant hormone, and has been listed by the EPA Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Chemical Substance Inventory as an experimental teratogen. The name is from Latin salix for willow tree, from which it was initially identified and derived. It is an ingredient in some anti-acne products. Salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates.
Uses:
Medicine
Salicylic acid as a medication is commonly used to remove the outermost layer of the skin. As such, it is used to treat warts, psoriasis, acne vulgaris, ringworm, dandruff, and ichthyosis.
Similar to other hydroxy acids, salicylic acid is an ingredient in many skincare products for the treatment of seborrhoeic dermatitis, acne, psoriasis, calluses, corns, keratosis pilaris, acanthosis nigricans, ichthyosis, and warts.
Uses in manufacturing
Salicylic acid is used as a food preservative, a bactericide, and an antiseptic.
Salicylic acid is used in the production of other pharmaceuticals, including 4-aminosalicylic acid, sandulpiride, and landetimide (via salethamide). It is also used in picric acid production.
Salicylic acid has long been a key starting material for making acetylsalicylic acid (ASA or aspirin). ASA is prepared by the acetylation of salicylic acid with the acetyl group from acetic anhydride or acetyl chloride. ASA is the standard to which all the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are compared. In veterinary medicine, this group of drugs is mainly used for treatment of inflammatory musculoskeletal disorders.
Bismuth subsalicylate, a salt of bismuth and salicylic acid, "displays anti-inflammatory action (due to salicylic acid) and also acts as an antacid and mild antibiotic". It is an active ingredient in stomach-relief aids such as Pepto-Bismol and some formulations of Kaopectate.
Other derivatives include methyl salicylate, used as a liniment to soothe joint and muscle pain, and choline salicylate, which is used topically to relieve the pain of mouth ulcers. Aminosalicylic acid is used to induce remission in ulcerative colitis, and has been used as an antitubercular agent often administered in association with isoniazid.
Sodium salicylate is a useful phosphor in the vacuum ultraviolet spectral range, with nearly flat quantum efficiency for wavelengths between 10 and 100 nm. It fluoresces in the blue at 420 nm. It is easily prepared on a clean surface by spraying a saturated solution of the salt in methanol followed by evaporation.
What if I miss a dose?
If you miss a dose, take it as soon as you can. If it is almost time for your next dose, take only that dose. Do not take double or extra doses.
What may interact with this medication?
* Medications that change urine pH, such as ammonium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, and others
* Medications that treat or prevent blood clots, such as warfarin
* Methotrexate
* Pyrazinamide
* Some medications for diabetes
* Some medications for gout
* Steroid medications, such as prednisone or cortisone
This list may not describe all possible interactions. Give your health care provider a list of all the medicines, herbs, non-prescription drugs, or dietary supplements you use. Also tell them if you smoke, drink alcohol, or use illegal drugs. Some items may interact with your medicine.
What should I watch for while using this medication?
Visit your care team for regular checks on your progress. It may be some time before you see the benefit from this medication. This medication can make you more sensitive to the sun. Keep out of the sun. If you cannot avoid being in the sun, wear protective clothing and sunscreen. Do not use sun lamps or tanning beds/booths.
Additional Information
Salicylic Acid is a keratolytic medication. It treats pimples (acne) by penetrating into the skin and killing acne-causing bacteria. It additionally reduces oil production in the skin, replenishes acne-prone skin, and it also keeps your pores open.
Q. How should Salicylic Acid be applied?
A. You should remove all of the make-up. Wash your hands and the affected area and gently dry. Put a thin layer of Salicylic Acid cream on the affected skin, using your fingertips. Apply it to the entire area affected by acne, not just each spot. After applying, wash your hands thoroughly with water.
Q. Should Salicylic Acid be left overnight?
A. At the beginning of the treatment, Salicylic Acid is usually used once daily in the evening. The area is not washed off after application of Salicylic Acid, so it can be left overnight unless you experience irritation. However, if you experience irritation, consult your doctor.
Q. What should prompt me to discontinue Salicylic Acid?
A. You should discontinue Salicylic Acid and consult your doctor if you experience severe local irritation, which means severe redness, dryness and itching and stinging/burning sensation.
Q. What precautions should be followed while applying Salicylic Acid?
A. Use Salicylic Acid only on your skin. Keep it away from areas like your eyes, eyelids, lips, mouth and inside of the nose. If the medicine comes in contact with any of these areas, wash the affected area with water immediately. Avoid using Salicylic Acid on scratched or eroded skin and open wounds. Take care when using Salicylic Acid on sensitive areas of skin such as your neck. Salicylic Acid can make your skin more sensitive to the harmful effects of the sunlight. So, avoid the use of sunbeds/lamps and minimize the time you spend in the sun. You should use sunscreen and wear protective clothing while using Salicylic Acid. Avoid contact with hair as Salicylic Acid has bleaching properties. It can even bleach dyed or colored fabric, furniture or carpeting.
Q. How often should I apply Salicylic Acid?
A. The initial dose is preferably once daily in the evening. Later, the doctor will gradually increase the dose to twice daily (most probably morning and evening).
Q. How long does Salicylic Acid take to show its effects?
A. You may see an improvement after 4-6 weeks of treatment. You may need to use this treatment for longer to see the full benefits. This is normal for acne treatments. If your acne does not get better after 1 month or if it gets worse, talk to your doctor immediately.
Q. Do you apply moisturizer before or after Salicylic Acid?
A. You may apply moisturizer an hour after applying Salicylic Acid. Consult your doctor in case of any doubt or concern.
#16 Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity » Coaching Quotes - II » 2025-10-28 16:00:53
- Jai Ganesh
- Replies: 0
Coaching Quotes - II
1. It's not that easy for some of these players in China to get the coaching they need. - Michael Chang
2. Nearly all of these Chinese girls that have had success have had coaching from foreign coaches. - Michael Chang
3. I love to promote our sport. I love grass-roots tennis. I love coaching. I love all parts of the sport. I love the business side. - Billie Jean King
4. I keep trying to bring a more professional approach to New Zealand cricket. It's an uphill battle. I stay in the game because I find it intriguing and interesting. I'm not interested in coaching international sides. I don't mind short-term coaching. I don't want to get involved in the politics of teams. - Glenn Turner
5. I never thought of coaching the Indian cricket team. I was given the offer... BCCI secretary Amitabh Choudhury and MV Sridhar came to me and requested me to think on the offer. I took my time and then applied for the position. - Virender Sehwag
6. My dad and my brother were more keen on football, but I used to play canvas-ball cricket while at school in Ranchi, and we would have cricket coaching camps in the summer vacations. That's how I started. - MS Dhoni
7. I am really lucky that I got such good coaches and everything I wanted, right from the infrastructure to proper coaching. - P. V. Sindhu
8. I don't think, in international cricket, there is a need for coaching. The real coaching is to recognise your players' strengths and weaknesses. You always remain positive with your players. - Shahid Afridi.
#17 Jokes » Banana Jokes - V » 2025-10-28 15:43:07
- Jai Ganesh
- Replies: 0
Q: How can you tell the difference between a monster and a banana?
A: Try picking it up. If you can't, it's either a monster or a giant banana.
* * *
Q: Why are bananas never lonely?
A: Because they hang around in bunches.
* * *
Q: Why did the kid keep falling off his bike?
A: It had a banana seat.
* * *
Q: How do you catch King Kong?
A: Hang upside down and make a noise like a banana.
* * *
Q: Why do banana's do so well on the dating scene?
A: Because they have Appeal!
* * *
#18 Science HQ » Hassium » 2025-10-28 15:23:47
- Jai Ganesh
- Replies: 0
Hassium
Gist
Hassium (Hs) is a synthetic, highly radioactive chemical element with atomic number 108. It is a transition metal that was discovered in 1984 and is produced in labs by bombarding lead atoms with iron ions. Due to its extreme instability, hassium has no known uses and is only used in scientific research.
Hassium has no known commercial or industrial uses because it is a synthetic, highly radioactive element that exists only in extremely small quantities for very short periods. Its only use is for scientific research, specifically for testing nuclear theories and refining experimental techniques.
Summary
Hassium is a synthetic chemical element; it has symbol Hs and atomic number 108. It is highly radioactive: its most stable known isotopes have half-lives of about ten seconds. One of its isotopes, 270Hs, has magic numbers of protons and neutrons for deformed nuclei, giving it greater stability against spontaneous fission. Hassium is a superheavy element; it has been produced in a laboratory in very small quantities by fusing heavy nuclei with lighter ones. Natural occurrences of hassium have been hypothesized but never found.
In the periodic table, hassium is a transactinide element, a member of period 7 and group 8; it is thus the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that hassium behaves as the heavier homologue to osmium, reacting readily with oxygen to form a volatile tetroxide. The chemical properties of hassium have been only partly characterized, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 8 elements.
The main innovation that led to the discovery of hassium was cold fusion, where the fused nuclei do not differ by mass as much as in earlier techniques. It relied on greater stability of target nuclei, which in turn decreased excitation energy. This decreased the number of neutrons ejected during synthesis, creating heavier, more stable resulting nuclei. The technique was first tested at Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union, in 1974. JINR used this technique to attempt synthesis of element 108 in 1978, in 1983, and in 1984; the latter experiment resulted in a claim that element 108 had been produced. Later in 1984, a synthesis claim followed from the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany. The 1993 report by the Transfermium Working Group, formed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP), concluded that the report from Darmstadt was conclusive on its own whereas that from Dubna was not, and major credit was assigned to the German scientists. GSI formally announced they wished to name the element hassium after the German state of Hesse (Hassia in Latin), home to the facility in 1992; this name was accepted as final in 1997.
Details
Hassium (Hs) is an artificially produced element belonging to the transuranium group, atomic number 108. It was synthesized and identified in 1984 by West German researchers at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung [GSI]) in Darmstadt. On the basis of its position in the periodic table of the elements, it is expected to have chemical properties similar to those of osmium.
The GSI research team, led by Peter Armbruster, produced an isotope of hassium in a fusion reaction by irradiating lead-208 with ions of iron-58. The isotope, which has a mass number of 265, is exceedingly unstable and has a half-life of only 2 milliseconds. Experiments conducted by A.G. Demin and other researchers at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia, U.S.S.R., suggested the existence of two more isotopes of hassium with mass numbers of 263 and 264.
Additional Information:
Appearance
A highly radioactive metal, of which only a few atoms have ever been made.
Uses
At present it is only used in research.
Biological role
Hassium has no known biological role.
Natural abundance
Hassium does not occur naturally and it will probably never be isolated in observable quantities. It is created by bombarding lead with iron atoms.
#19 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » General Quiz » 2025-10-28 15:07:23
Hi,
#10635. What does the term in Biology Ecological succession mean?
#10636. What does the term in Biology Ecology mean?
#20 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » English language puzzles » 2025-10-28 14:24:49
Hi,
#5831. What does the noun forbearance mean?
#5832. What does the verb (used with object) forbid mean?
#21 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » Doc, Doc! » 2025-10-28 14:13:17
Hi,
#2509. What does the medical term Enema mean?
#22 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » 10 second questions » 2025-10-28 14:01:06
Hi,
#9778.
#23 Re: Jai Ganesh's Puzzles » Oral puzzles » 2025-10-28 13:51:35
Hi,
#6283.
#24 Re: Exercises » Compute the solution: » 2025-10-28 13:30:54
Hi,
2630.
#25 This is Cool » Unicellular Organisms » 2025-10-27 22:13:36
- Jai Ganesh
- Replies: 0
Unicellular Organisms
Gist
In biology, the adjective unicellular describes an organism that has only one single cell, like most kinds of bacteria. You're most likely to see the word unicellular in a biology textbook, where it is used to talk about microscopic, single-celled organisms.
Many organisms are unicellular, including bacteria, archaea, protozoa like amoeba and paramecium, and some fungi like yeast. These single-celled organisms perform all necessary life functions within that one cell and are often microscopic, though some can be large enough to see with the naked eye, such as Valonia ventricosa.
Summary
Unicellular organisms are organisms consisting of one cell only that performs all vital functions including metabolism, excretion, and reproduction. Unicellular organisms can either be prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Examples of unicellular organisms are bacteria, archaea, unicellular fungi, and unicellular protists. Even though unicellular organisms are not seen by the naked eye, they have an indispensable role in the environment, industry, and medicine. Some of them may also be infectious or pathogenic to humans, animals, and plants.
Unicellular Definition
What is a unicellular organism? In contrast to multicellular organisms, single-celled organisms — or unicellular organisms — are groups of different living organisms consisting of one cell only. And that cell performs all vital functions, such as homeostasis, metabolism, and reproduction. Moreover, a single cell must be able to obtain and use energy, get rid of wastes, and transport materials. In contrast, multicellular organisms are made up of multiple cells and these cells have specific roles and may function together as a unit (tissue).
The cell of a unicellular organism has a protoplasm that contains various proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. The protoplasm is surrounded by a cell membrane that separates the internal components of the cell from the external environment. However, any cell should be able to interact with its external environment to obtain molecules from the outside and expel wastes to the outside.
Are bacteria unicellular? Yes! In fact, not only bacteria are unicellular but also archaea. Both bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic organisms. Unicellularity, though, is not exclusive to prokaryotes. Some eukaryotes live singly as well. Examples of single-celled eukaryotes are the unicellular algae, unicellular fungi, and protozoa.
Most living things composed of only one cell are microscopic and cannot be seen by the naked eyes. Unicellular organisms abound in nature. Even extreme habitats contain unicellular organisms. Some archaea, for instance, can survive in extreme environments, and so they are called extremophiles. They are typically resistant to extreme conditions such as temperature or pH.
Details
A unicellular organism, also known as a single-celled organism, is an organism that consists of a single cell, unlike a multicellular organism that consists of multiple cells. Organisms fall into two general categories: prokaryotic organisms and eukaryotic organisms. Most prokaryotes are unicellular and are classified into bacteria and archaea. Many eukaryotes are multicellular, but some are unicellular such as protozoa, unicellular algae, and unicellular fungi. Unicellular organisms are thought to be the oldest form of life, with early organisms emerging 3.5–3.8 billion years ago.
Although some prokaryotes live in colonies, they are not specialised cells with differing functions. These organisms live together, and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive. In contrast, even the simplest multicellular organisms have cells that depend on each other to survive.
Most multicellular organisms have a unicellular life-cycle stage. Gametes, for example, are reproductive unicells for multicellular organisms.
Some organisms are partially unicellular, like Dictyostelium discoideum. Additionally, unicellular organisms can be multinucleate, like Caulerpa, Plasmodium, and Myxogastria.
Evolutionary hypothesis
The origin of life is largely still a mystery. Primitive protocells are thought to be the precursors to today's unicellular organisms.
In one theory, known as the RNA world hypothesis, early RNA molecules would have been the basis for catalyzing organic chemical reactions and self-replication.
Compartmentalization was necessary for chemical reactions to be more likely as well as to differentiate reactions with the external environment. For example, an early RNA replicator ribozyme may have replicated other replicator ribozymes of different RNA sequences if not kept separate. Such hypothetic cells with an RNA genome instead of the usual DNA genome are called 'ribocells' or 'ribocytes'.
When amphiphiles like lipids are placed in water, the hydrophobic tails aggregate to form micelles and vesicles, with the hydrophilic ends facing outwards. Primitive cells likely used self-assembling fatty-acid vesicles to separate chemical reactions and the environment. Because of their simplicity and ability to self-assemble in water, it is likely that these simple membranes predated other forms of early biological molecules.
Additional Information
A unicellular organism is a living thing that is just one cell. There are different types of unicellular organism, including:
* Unicellular fungi
* Protozoa
* Bacteria
These organisms have adaptations that make them well suited for life in their environment.
Unicellular fungi
Yeast are unicellular fungi. They are used by brewers and wine-makers because they convert sugar into alcohol, and by bakers because they can produce carbon dioxide to make bread to rise. Fungi can also form into mushrooms and toadstools.
Protozoa
Protozoa are unicellular organisms that live in water or in damp places, for example, the amoeba.
Bacteria
Even though a bacterium is just one cell, it can carry out all seven life processes - movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition.
