Posts by Jai Ganesh

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

2409) John Kendrew

Gist:

Work

When X-rays pass through a crystalline structure, the patterns formed can be captured as photographic images, which are then used to determine the crystal's structure. During the 1930s, this method was used to map increasingly large and complex molecules. In 1957, John Kendrew became the first person to successfully determine the atomic structure of a protein. He had unlocked the structure of myoglobin, an oxygen-storing protein found in muscle cells.

Summary

Sir John Cowdery Kendrew (born March 24, 1917, Oxford, Oxfordshire, England—died August 23, 1997, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) was a British biochemist who determined the three-dimensional structure of the muscle protein myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle cells. For his achievement he shared the Nobel Prize for Chemistry with Max Ferdinand Perutz in 1962.

Kendrew was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, receiving his Ph.D. there in 1949. In 1946–47 he and Perutz founded the Medical Research Council Unit for Molecular Biology at Cambridge. They used the technique of X-ray crystallography to study the structures of proteins, with Perutz studying hemoglobin and Kendrew trying to determine the structure of the somewhat simpler molecule of myoglobin. By 1960, with the use of special diffraction techniques and the help of computers to analyze the X-ray data, Kendrew was able to devise a three-dimensional model of the arrangement of the amino acid units in the myoglobin molecule, which was the first time this had been accomplished for any protein.

A fellow of Peterhouse College, Cambridge, from 1947 to 1975, Kendrew was also deputy chairman of the Medical Research Council Unit and, from 1971, chairman of the Defence Scientific Advisory Council. He was knighted in 1974 and became president of St. John’s College, Oxford, in 1981.

Details

Sir John Cowdery Kendrew, (24 March 1917 – 23 August 1997) was an English biochemist, crystallographer, and science administrator. Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Max Perutz, for their work at the Cavendish Laboratory to investigate the structure of haem-containing proteins.

Education and early life

Kendrew was born in Oxford, son of Wilfrid George Kendrew, reader in climatology in the University of Oxford, and Evelyn May Graham Sandburg, art historian. After preparatory school at the Dragon School in Oxford, he was educated at Clifton College in Bristol, 1930–1936. He attended Trinity College, Cambridge in 1936, as a Major Scholar, graduating in chemistry in 1939. He spent the early months of World War II doing research on reaction kinetics, and then became a member of the Air Ministry Research Establishment, working on radar. In 1940 he became engaged in operational research at the Royal Air Force headquarters; commissioned a squadron leader on 17 September 1941, he was appointed an honorary wing commander on 8 June 1944, and relinquished his commission on 5 June 1945. He was awarded his PhD after the war in 1949.

Research and career

During the war years, he became increasingly interested in biochemical problems, and decided to work on the structure of proteins.

Crystallography

In 1945 he approached Max Perutz in the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge. Joseph Barcroft, a respiratory physiologist, suggested he might make a comparative protein crystallographic study of adult and foetal sheep haemoglobin, and he started that work.

In 1947 he became a Fellow of Peterhouse; and the Medical Research Council (MRC) agreed to create a research unit for the study of the molecular structure of biological systems, under the direction of Sir Lawrence Bragg. In 1954 he became a Reader at the Davy-Faraday Laboratory of the Royal Institution in London.

Crystal structure of myoglobin

Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize for chemistry with Max Perutz for determining the first atomic structures of proteins using X-ray crystallography. Their work was done at what is now the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology in Cambridge. Kendrew determined the structure of the protein myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle cells.

In 1947 the MRC agreed to make a research unit for the Study of the Molecular Structure of Biological Systems. The original studies were on the structure of sheep haemoglobin, but when this work had progressed as far as was possible using the resources then available, Kendrew embarked on the study of myoglobin, a molecule only a quarter the size of the haemoglobin molecule. His initial source of raw material was horse heart, but the crystals thus obtained were too small for X-ray analysis. Kendrew realized that the oxygen-conserving tissue of diving mammals could offer a better prospect, and a chance encounter led to his acquiring a large chunk of whale meat from Peru. Whale myoglobin did give large crystals with clean X-ray diffraction patterns. However, the problem still remained insurmountable, until in 1953 Max Perutz discovered that the phase problem in analysis of the diffraction patterns could be solved by multiple isomorphous replacement — comparison of patterns from several crystals; one from the native protein, and others that had been soaked in solutions of heavy metals and had metal ions introduced in different well-defined positions. An electron density map at 6 angstrom (0.6 nanometre) resolution was obtained by 1957, and by 1959 an atomic model could be built at 2 angstrom (0.2 nm) resolution.

Later career

In 1963, Kendrew became one of the founders of the European Molecular Biology Organization; he also founded the Journal of Molecular Biology and was for many years its editor-in-chief. He became Fellow of the American Society of Biological Chemists in 1967 and honorary member of the International Academy of Science, Munich. In 1974, he succeeded in persuading governments to establish the European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) in Heidelberg and became its first director. He was knighted in 1974. From 1974 to 1979, he was a Trustee of the British Museum, and from 1974 to 1988 he was successively Secretary General, Vice-President, and President of the International Council of Scientific Unions.

After his retirement from EMBL, Kendrew became President of St John's College at the University of Oxford, a post he held from 1981 to 1987. In his will, he designated his bequest to St John's College for studentships in science and in music, for students from developing countries. The Kendrew Quadrangle at St John's College in Oxford, officially opened on 16 October 2010, is named after him.

Kendrew was married to the former Elizabeth Jarvie (née Gorvin) from 1948 to 1956. Their marriage ended in divorce. Kendrew was subsequently partners with the artist Ruth Harris. He had no surviving children.

A biography of Kendrew, entitled A Place in History: The Biography of John C. Kendrew, by Paul M. Wassarman was published by Oxford University Press in 2020.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

26) Marin Mersenne

Marin Mersenne, OM (also known as Marinus Mersennus or le Père Mersenne; French: [maʁɛ̃ mɛʁsɛn]; 8 September 1588 – 1 September 1648) was a French polymath whose works touched a wide variety of fields. He is perhaps best known today among mathematicians for Mersenne prime numbers, those written in the form

for some integer n. He also developed Mersenne's laws, which describe the harmonics of a vibrating string (such as may be found on guitars and pianos), and his seminal work on music theory, Harmonie universelle, for which he is referred to as the "father of acoustics".

Mersenne, an ordained Catholic priest, had many contacts in the scientific world and has been called "the center of the world of science and mathematics during the first half of the 1600s" and, because of his ability to make connections between people and ideas, "the post-box of Europe". He was also a member of the ascetical Minim religious order and wrote and lectured on theology and philosophy.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

Watch or Wrist watch

Gist

A wristwatch is worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or another type of bracelet, including metal bands or leather straps. A pocket watch is carried in a pocket, often attached to a chain.

The "best" watch depends on your needs: Quartz for accuracy & low cost, Automatic for craftsmanship & tradition, and Smartwatches for tech; choose styles like Field (rugged), Dress (formal), or Chronograph (multi-function) based on lifestyle, ensuring it fits your wrist and reflects your personality. There's no single best, but rather the best for you, balancing convenience, style, and purpose.

Summary

A watch is a timepiece carried or worn by a person. It is designed to maintain a consistent movement despite the motions caused by the person's activities. A wristwatch is worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or another type of bracelet, including metal bands or leather straps. A pocket watch is carried in a pocket, often attached to a chain. A stopwatch is a type of watch that measures intervals of time.

During most of their history, beginning in the 16th century, watches were mechanical devices, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring, and keeping time with an oscillating balance wheel. These are known as mechanical watches. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, powered by a battery and keeping time with a vibrating quartz crystal. By the 1980s it had taken over most of the watch market, in what became known as the quartz revolution (or the quartz crisis in Switzerland, whose renowned watch industry it decimated). In the 2010s, smartwatches emerged, small wrist-worn computers with touchscreens and with functions that go far beyond timekeeping.

Modern watches often display the day, date, month, and year. Mechanical watches may have extra features ("complications") such as moon-phase displays and different types of tourbillon. Quartz watches often include timers, chronographs, and alarm functions. Smartwatches and more complicated electronic watches may even incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, and some use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time.

Most watches used mainly for timekeeping have quartz movements. But expensive collectible watches, valued more for their elaborate craftsmanship, aesthetic appeal, and glamorous design than for timekeeping, often have traditional mechanical movements, despite being less accurate and more expensive than their electronic counterparts. As of 2019, the most expensive watch ever sold at auction was the Patek Philippe Grandmaster Chime for US$31.2 million.

Details

A watch is a portable timepiece that has a movement driven either by spring or by electricity and that is designed to be worn or carried in the pocket.

Mechanical watches

The first watches appeared shortly after 1500, early examples being made by Peter Henlein, a locksmith in Nürnberg, Ger. The escapement used in the early watches was the same as that used in the early clocks, the verge. Early watches were made notably in Germany and at Blois in France, among other countries, and were generally carried in the hand or worn on a chain around the neck. They usually had only one hand for the hours.

The mainspring, the element that drives the watch, consists of a flat spring-steel band stressed in bending or coiling; when the watch, or other spring-driven mechanism, is wound, the curvature of the spring is increased, and energy is thus stored. This energy is transmitted to the oscillating section of the watch (called the balance) by the wheeltrain and escapement, the motion of the balance itself controlling the release of the escapement and consequently the timing of the watch. A friction drive permits the hand to be set.

One of the main defects of the early watches was the variation in the torque exerted by the mainspring; that is, the force of the mainspring was greater when fully wound than when it was almost run down. Since the timekeeping of a watch fitted with a verge escapement was greatly influenced by the force driving it, this problem was quite serious. Solution of the problem was advanced almost as soon as the mainspring was invented (about 1450) by the application of the fusee, a cone-shaped, grooved pulley used together with a barrel containing the mainspring. With this arrangement, the mainspring was made to rotate a barrel in which it was housed; a length of catgut, later replaced by a chain, was wound on it, the other end being coiled around the fusee. When the mainspring was fully wound, the gut or chain pulled on the smallest radius of the cone-shaped fusee; as the mainspring ran down, the leverage was progressively increased as the gut or chain pulled on a larger radius. With correct proportioning of mainspring and fusee radii, an almost constant torque was maintained as the mainspring unwound.

The going barrel, in which the mainspring barrel drives the wheeltrain directly, is fitted to all modern mechanical watches and has superseded the fusee. With better quality mainsprings, torque variations have been reduced to a minimum, and with a properly adjusted balance and balance spring, good timekeeping is ensured.

Up to about 1580, the mechanisms of German watches were made almost wholly of iron; about this time, brass was introduced.

In the earliest watches a plain wheel, known as the balance, was used to control the rate of going of the mechanism. It was subjected to no consistent restoring force; consequently, its period of oscillation and, hence, the rate of the timekeeper were dependent on the driving force. This explains the great importance of the fusee.

Controlling the oscillations of a balance with a spring was an important step in the history of timekeeping. English physicist Robert Hooke designed a watch with a balance spring in the late 1650s; there appears to be no evidence, however, that the spring was in the form of a spiral, a crucial element that would become widely employed. Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens was probably the first to design (1674–75) a watch with a spiral balance spring. The balance spring is a delicate ribbon of steel or other suitable spring material, generally wound into a spiral form. The inner end is pinned into a collet (a small collar), which fits friction-tight on the balance staff, while the outer end is held in a stud fixed to the movement. This spring acts on the balance as gravity does on the pendulum. If the balance is displaced to one side, the spring is wound and energy stored in it; this energy is then restored to the balance, causing it to swing nearly the same distance to the other side if the balance is released.

If there were no frictional losses (e.g., air friction, internal friction in the spring material, and friction at the pivots), the balance would swing precisely the same distance to the other side and continue to oscillate indefinitely; because of these losses, however, the oscillations in practice die away. It is the energy stored in the mainspring and fed to the balance through the wheel train and escapement that maintains the oscillations.

The performance of the modern watch depends on the uniformity of the period of oscillation of the balance—i.e., the regularity of its movement. The balance takes the form of a wheel with a heavy rim, while the spring coupled to it provides the restoring torque. The balance possesses inertia, dependent on its mass and configuration. The spring should ideally provide a restoring force directly proportional to the displacement from its unstressed or zero position.

The balance is mounted on a staff with pivots, and, in watches of good quality, these run in jewels. Two jewels are used at each end of the balance staff, one pierced to provide a bearing, the other a flat end stone providing axial location by bearing against the domed end of the pivot. Frictional effects at the pivots influence the performance of the watch in various positions—for example, lying and hanging.

The balance and spring can be brought to time, or “regulated,” by varying either the restoring couple provided by the spring or the moment of inertia of the balance. In the first case (by far the more common), this is generally effected by providing a pair of curb pins mounted on a movable regulator index that lengthen or shorten the balance spring as needed.

In the second instance, screws are provided at opposite points on the rim of the balance; these screws are friction-tight in their holes and thus can be moved in or out so as to adjust the inertia of the balance. In “free-sprung” watches no regulator index is provided, and the only adjusters are the screws on the balance rim.

Many modern mechanical watches use a lever escapement, invented in England about 1755 by Thomas Mudge, that leaves the balance free to oscillate, coupling to it only while delivering the impulse, taken from the mainspring via the wheel train and while being unlocked by the balance. It was developed into its modern form with the club-tooth escape wheel at the beginning of the 19th century but was not universally adopted until the early 20th century. In good-quality watches the club-tooth escape wheel is made of hardened steel, with the acting surfaces ground and polished. An improved form of the lever escapement is characterized by a double-roller safety action in which the intersection between the guard pin and roller, which takes place underneath the roller, is much deeper than in early single-roller watches; thus, any friction caused by jolts encountered in wear causes less constraint on the balance and less endangerment of the timekeeping properties of the watch. By far the most important watch escapement today is the lever escapement; it is used in its jeweled form in watches of moderate to excellent quality, and it is used with steel pallet pins and a simplified fork-and-roller action in cheaper watches (known as pin-pallet watches).

In the wheel train of a modern watch, it is necessary to achieve a step-up ratio of approximately 1 to 4,000 between barrel and escape wheel. This involves four pairs of gears, the ratio per pair commonly being between 6 to 1 and 10 to 1. Because of space considerations, the pinions must have a low number of leaves (teeth), commonly 6 to 12. This entails a number of special gearing problems, aggravated by the fineness of the pitch. Any error in centre distance, form, or concentricity is therefore proportionately more important than in larger gear trains.

The first patent covering the application of jewels in watches was taken out in London in 1704; diamonds and sapphires were used. Synthetic jewels made from fused powdered alumina (aluminum oxide) are now commonly used. Watch jewels are given a very high polish; a uniform outside diameter for the jewel bearings is highly important, because they are pressed into accurately sized holes smaller than the jewels themselves and held there by friction.

The first patent on the self-winding pocket watch was taken out in London in 1780. An English invention patented in 1924, the self-winding wristwatch by Louis Recordon, contains a swinging weight pivoted at the centre of the movement, coupled to the barrel arbor through reduction wheels and gears. A more modern self-winding watch is fitted with a weight or rotor swinging 360 degrees and winding in both directions.

Electric-powered and electronic watches

Electric-powered watches use one of three drive systems: (1) the galvanometer drive, consisting of the conventional balance-hairspring oscillator, kept in motion by the magnetic interaction of a coil and a permanent magnet, (2) the induction drive, in which an electromagnet attracts a balance containing soft magnetic material, or (3) the resonance drive, in which a tiny tuning fork (about 25 mm [1 inch] in length), driven electrically, provides the motive power. Both galvanometer and induction drive types use a mechanical contact, actuated by the balance motion, to provide properly timed electric-drive pulses. Each oscillation of the balance operates a time-indicating gear train by advancing a toothed wheel one tooth. First produced in 1953, the resonance drive type, properly called an electronic watch, is inherently more accurate since it operates at a frequency higher than that customarily used with balance-type watches, and the tuning fork is a fairly stable source of frequency. The higher frequency requires the replacement of a mechanical contact by a transistor. The minute and rapid motion of the tuning fork moves forward an extremely fine-toothed ratchet wheel. There is very little friction in the electronic watch; only tiny amounts of oil are needed. When the battery is too weak to operate the tuning fork, the watch simply stops, without deterioration. Miniature high-energy-density batteries are used as power sources in all three types.

The progressive miniaturization of electronic components in the late 20th century made possible the development of all-electronic watches, in which the necessary transistors, resistors, capacitors, and other elements were all on one or several miniature integrated circuits, or chips. The complex circuitry of such watches enabled them to perform a variety of timekeeping functions and also made possible digital readouts of the time in place of the traditional second, minute, and hour hands.

Additional Information

A wristwatch is a small, portable timepiece worn on the wrist, attached by a strap or bracelet, designed to keep consistent time despite a person's movements. Functioning as both a practical tool for telling time and a fashion accessory, wristwatches range from traditional mechanical or quartz models to modern smartwatches with advanced digital capabilities like fitness tracking and smartphone connectivity.

Wearing a watch offers benefits beyond just telling time, including improved time management, self-expression through style, a break from phone distractions, increased confidence, and the potential for sentimental value as a keepsake or heirloom, while also acting as a functional tool for fitness or notifications, especially with smartwatches.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2469) Hibiscus

Gist

Hibiscus refers to a large genus of flowering plants known for their large, showy, trumpet-shaped flowers in vibrant colors, used ornamentally and for teas, dyes, and traditional medicine, particularly Hibiscus sabdariffa (Roselle), valued for its edible calyxes with potential blood pressure-lowering and antioxidant properties, though it needs warmth and sun to thrive.

Summary

Hibiscus, (genus Hibiscus), genus of numerous species of herbs, shrubs, and trees in the mallow family (Malvaceae) that are native to warm temperate and tropical regions. Several are cultivated as ornamentals for their showy flowers, and a number are useful as fibre plants.

Physical description

The leaves are often lobed and may be smooth or covered in trichomes (plant hairs). The flowers can be borne singly or in clusters, and the flowers of many species last only a single day. An epicalyx (whorl of leaflike bracts that surrounds the sepals) is particularly common, and the stamens are typically fused into a tube. Members of the genus characteristically have spiny pollen, and their fruits are capsules.

Major species

The tropical Chinese hibiscus, or China rose (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), which may reach a height of 4.5 metres (15 feet), rarely exceeds 2 metres (6.5 feet) in cultivation. It is grown for its large somewhat bell-shaped blossoms. Cultivated varieties have red, white, yellow, or orange flowers. The East African hibiscus (H. schizopetalus), a drooping shrub with deeply lobed red petals, is often grown in hanging baskets indoors.

Other members of the genus Hibiscus include the fibre plants mahoe (H. tiliaceus), kenaf (H. cannabinus), and roselle (H. sabdariffa), rose of Sharon (H. syriacus), and many flowering plants known by the common name mallow.

Details

Hibiscus is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae. The genus is quite large, comprising several hundred species that are native to warm temperate, subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. Member species are renowned for their large, showy flowers and those species are commonly known simply as "hibiscus", or less widely known as rose mallow. The genus includes both annual and perennial herbaceous plants, as well as woody shrubs and small trees.

Several species are widely cultivated as ornamental plants, notably Hibiscus syriacus and Hibiscus × rosa-sinensis.

Description

The leaves are alternate, ovate to lanceolate, often with a toothed or lobed margin (dentate). The flowers are large and conspicuous. They are trumpet-shaped, with five or more petals, colour from white to pink, red, blue, orange, peach, yellow or purple, and from 4–18 cm broad.

Flower colour in certain species, such as H. mutabilis and H. tiliaceus, changes with age. The fruit is a dry five-lobed capsule, containing several seeds in each lobe, which are released when the capsule dehisces (splits open) at maturity. It is of red and white colours. It is an example of complete flowers.

Species

The yellow hibiscus is the state flower of Hawaii, although the most commonly seen hibiscus in the state is Hibiscus × rosa-sinensis.

In temperate zones, probably the most commonly grown ornamental species is Hibiscus syriacus, the common garden hibiscus, also known in some areas as the "rose of Althea" or "rose of Sharon" (but not to be confused with the unrelated Hypericum calycinum, also called "rose of Sharon"). In tropical and subtropical areas, the Chinese hibiscus (H. × rosa-sinensis), with its many showy hybrids, is the most popular hibiscus.

Uses:

Landscaping

Many species are grown for their showy flowers or used as landscape shrubs, and are used to attract butterflies, bees, and hummingbirds.

Hibiscus is a very hardy, versatile plant and in tropical conditions it can enhance the beauty of any garden. Being versatile it adapts itself easily to balcony gardens in crammed urban spaces and can be easily grown in pots as a creeper or even in hanging pots. It is a perennial and flowers throughout the year. As it comes in a variety of colors, it's a plant which can add vibrancy to any garden.

The only infestation that gardeners need to be vigilant about is mealybugs. Mealybug infestations are easy to spot as they are clearly visible as a distinct white cottony infestation on buds, leaves or even stems.

Paper

One species of Hibiscus, known as kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus), is extensively used in paper-making.

Rope and construction

The inner bark of the sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), also called 'hau', is used in Polynesia for making rope, and the wood for making canoe floats. The ropes on the missionary ship Messenger of Peace were made of fibres from hibiscus trees.

Beverage

The tea made of the calyces of Hibiscus sabdariffa is known by many names in many countries around the world and is served both hot and cold. The beverage is well known for its red colour, tartness and unique flavour. Additionally, it is highly nutritious because of its vitamin C content.

It is known as bissap in West Africa, "Gul e Khatmi" in Urdu & Persian, agua de jamaica in Mexico and Central America (the flower being flor de jamaica) and Orhul in India. Some refer to it as roselle, a common name for the hibiscus flower. In Jamaica, Trinidad and many other islands in the Caribbean, the drink is known as sorrel (Hibiscus sabdariffa; not to be confused with Rumex acetosa, a species sharing the common name sorrel). In Ghana, the drink is known as sobolo.

In Egypt and Sudan, hibiscus tea is known as karkadé, and is served as both a hot and a cold drink.

Food

Dried hibiscus is edible, and it is often a delicacy in Mexico. It can also be candied and used as a garnish, usually for desserts. Contrary to popular assumptions that the flowers or petals are what is being eaten, it is the calyces.

The roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) is used as a vegetable. The species Hibiscus suratensis Linn synonymous with Hibiscus aculeatus G. Don is noted in Visayas in the Philippines as being a souring ingredient for almost all local vegetables and menus. Known as labog in the Visayan area (or labuag/sapinit in Tagalog), the species is an ingredient in cooking native chicken soup.

Hibiscus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidopteran species, including Chionodes hibiscella, Hypercompe hambletoni, the nutmeg moth, and the turnip moth.

Folk medicine

Hibiscus × rosa-sinensis is described as having a number of medical uses in Indian Ayurveda.

Symbolism and culture

The red hibiscus is the flower of the Hindu goddess Kali, and appears frequently in depictions of her in the art of Bengal, India, often with the goddess and the flower merging in form. The hibiscus is used as an offering to Kali and the god Ganesha in Hindu worship.

In the Philippines, the gumamela (the local name for hibiscus) is used by children as part of a bubble-making pastime. The flowers and leaves are crushed until the sticky juices come out. Hollow papaya stalks are then dipped into this and used as straws for blowing bubbles. Together with soap, hibiscus juices produce more bubbles. It is also called "Tarukanga" in Waray, particularly in Eastern Samar province.

The hibiscus flower is traditionally worn by Pacific island women, and is a known shared custom that if the flower is worn behind the left ear, the woman is married or has a boyfriend. If the flower is worn on the right, she is single or openly available for a relationship. The pink hibiscus flower has its origins in Asia and the Pacific Islands, where it has served as a symbol of beauty, femininity, and young love. It is commonly associated with the Hawaiian culture and the Aloha spirit, which celebrates love, happiness, and peace.

A stylized image of the hibiscus flower was used as a logo of Air Polynésie.

Nigerian author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie named her first novel Purple Hibiscus after the delicate flower.

The bark of the hibiscus contains strong bast fibres that can be obtained by letting the stripped bark set in the sea to let the organic material rot away.

A coastal area in Auckland, New Zealand is known as the Hibiscus Coast, named after the non-native flower due to its associations with beach and holiday atmospheres.

As a national and state symbol

The hibiscus is a national symbol of Haiti, and the national flower of nations including the Solomon Islands and Niue. Hibiscus syriacus is the national flower of South Korea, and Hibiscus × rosa-sinensis is the national flower of Malaysia. Hibiscus brackenridgei is the state flower of Hawaii.

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Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Collective Quotes - I

1. Really, the only thing that makes sense is to strive for greater collective enlightenment. - Elon Musk

2. The press should be not only a collective propagandist and a collective agitator, but also a collective organizer of the masses. - Vladimir Lenin

3. Duty is not collective; it is personal. - Calvin Coolidge

4. Collective fear stimulates herd instinct, and tends to produce ferocity toward those who are not regarded as members of the herd. - Bertrand Russell

5. You have many years ahead of you to create the dreams that we can't even imagine dreaming. You have done more for the collective unconscious of this planet than you will ever know. - Steven Spielberg

6. Money is our madness, our vast collective madness. - D. H. Lawrence

7. I don't believe in collective guilt, but I do believe in collective responsibility. - Audrey Hepburn

8. In America, it was decided to attempt the production of atomic bombs with an effort that would constitute a large part of the collective American war effort. In Germany, an effort one thousandth the scale of the American was applied to the problem of producing atomic energy that would drive engines. - Werner Heisenberg.

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#2543. What does the medical term Vertical banded gastroplasty surgery mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#5893. What does the noun counterattack mean?

#5894. What does the adjective counterclockwise mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#10697. What does the term in Geography Continent mean?

#10698. What does the term in Geography Continental climate mean?

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: What group of cheese has been known to fly?
A: Curds of prey!
* * *
Q: What is the name of the country near Iraq that is made entirely of cheese?
A: Curd-istan.
* * *
Q: What does a lady in a mall do with a cheesey credit card?
A: Go on a shopping brie.
* * *
Q: What cheese surrounds a medieval castle?
A: Moatzeralla.
* * *
Q: What cheese should you use to hide a horse?
A: Mascarpone.
* * *

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#9827.

Jai Ganesh · Jai Ganesh's Puzzles

Hi,

#6321.

Jai Ganesh · Exercises

Hi,

2678.

Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Root canal treatment

Gist

A root canal treatment (RCT) saves a damaged or infected tooth by removing its inflamed/dead pulp (nerves, tissue), cleaning and disinfecting the inside, and then filling and sealing it to prevent future infection, relieving pain and preserving the natural tooth instead of extracting it. The procedure involves numbing the area, drilling access, cleaning the canals with files, filling with gutta-percha, and sealing with a temporary/permanent filling or crown, often in one or two visits.

How quick is root canal recovery?

Once the root canal procedure is over, recovery time typically takes less than a week. You might experience a little bit of mild discomfort for a few days. You may eat after a root canal, but it's recommended that you wait until the numbness wears off.

Summary

Root canal treatment (also known as endodontic therapy, endodontic treatment, or root canal therapy) is a treatment sequence for the infected pulp of a tooth that is intended to result in the elimination of infection and the protection of the decontaminated tooth from future microbial invasion. It is generally done when the cavity is too big for a normal filling. Root canals, and their associated pulp chamber, are the physical hollows within a tooth that are naturally inhabited by nerve tissue, blood vessels and other cellular entities.

Endodontic therapy involves the removal of these structures, disinfection and the subsequent shaping, cleaning, and decontamination of the hollows with small files and irrigating solutions, and the obturation (filling) of the decontaminated canals. Filling of the cleaned and decontaminated canals is done with an inert filling such as gutta-percha and typically a zinc oxide eugenol-based cement. Epoxy resin is employed to bind gutta-percha in some root canal procedures. In the past, in the discredited Sargenti method, an antiseptic filling material containing paraformaldehyde like N2 was used. Endodontics includes both primary and secondary endodontic treatments as well as periradicular surgery which is generally used for teeth that still have potential for salvage.

Details

A root canal clears infection from inside your tooth’s pulp, often resulting from deep cavities or cracks. If you notice pain, swelling or a boil on your gums, it could be time to see your dentist. Root canals are common and help save your natural tooth.

What is a root canal?

A root canal is a procedure that removes infected pulp from inside your tooth. Your dentist cleans and seals the canals to prevent further damage and save your tooth. You might need root canal treatment if bacteria reach the pulp and cause pain or inflammation.

This can happen if:

* You have a deep cavity
* You crack a tooth

Root canals are common. Good oral hygiene can help you avoid needing one.

How do I know if I need this procedure?

You might not notice an infected tooth at first, but root canal symptoms might include:

* A pimple or boil on your gums that may ooze pus
* A swollen jaw from a trapped infection
* Darkened tooth color
* Loose tooth from infection weakening nearby bone
* Pain that spreads to your jaw, face or nearby teeth
* Pain when chewing or touching the tooth
* Tender or swollen gums

If you have root canal pain, don’t wait. Treatment can relieve pain, save your tooth and prevent the infection from spreading. Your dentist can help you decide if it’s the right option for you.

Procedure Details:

How should I prepare for root canal treatment?

Before treatment, your provider will examine your tooth with X-rays and other tests to confirm the infection. They may:

* Ask if it hurts when you bite down
* Check for swelling in your gums or bone
* Gently tap your tooth or apply hot/cold to check sensitivity
* Use an electric pulp test (EPT) to see if the pulp is alive

What happens during a root canal procedure?

Your dentist or endodontist will:

* Numb the area with anesthesia (if you’re nervous, you may get medication to help you relax, and you might be drowsy after)
* Place cotton or a dental dam to keep the area clean and dry during the procedure
* Create a small hole in your tooth’s crown to reach the pulp
* Remove the infected pulp using tiny tools
* Clean and disinfect the inside of the tooth
* Fill the empty space with a rubbery dental material (gutta-percha)
* Seal the tooth with a temporary filling
* Place a permanent crown (usually at a later visit) to protect your tooth and restore your bite

Most root canals take about 60 to 90 minutes. Some may require more than one visit.

What happens after root canal treatment?

You’ll rest briefly in the office after your procedure. You’ll likely have two more appointments: one to prepare for your crown and one to place it.

Additional Information

A root canal treatment is a dental procedure to remove inflamed or infected pulp on the inside of the tooth which is then carefully cleaned and disinfected, then filled and sealed. Root canal treatment is designed to eliminate bacteria from the infected root canal, prevent reinfection of the tooth and save the natural tooth.

There's no need to be worried if your dentist or endodontist prescribes a root canal procedure to treat a damaged or diseased tooth. Millions of teeth are treated and saved this way each year, relieving pain and making teeth healthy again.

Inside your tooth, beneath the white enamel and a hard layer called dentin, is a soft tissue called pulp. This tissue contains blood vessels, nerves and connective tissue, which help grow the root of your tooth during its development. A fully developed tooth can survive without the pulp because the tooth continues to be nourished by the tissues surrounding it.

A modern root canal treatment is nothing like those old sayings! It's very similar to a routine filling and can usually be completed in one or two appointments, depending on the condition of your tooth and your personal circumstances. Getting a root canal is relatively painless and extremely effective. You'll be back to smiling, biting and chewing with ease in no time.

Saving the natural tooth with root canal treatment has many advantages:

* Efficient chewing
* Normal biting force and sensation
* Natural appearance
* Protects other teeth from excessive wear or strain.

Root_canal_treatment_1-edit-6806525.jpg?format=webp

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Collections Quotes

1. I find inspiration for my line of jewelry from traveling and from my lifestyle. I have three collections: New York, Palm Beach, and Paris. - Melania Trump

2. My mind seems to have become a kind of machine for grinding general laws out of large collections of facts. - Charles Darwin

3. I have collections of quirky things from places I've been to, like a set of Russian dolls. - Emma Watson

4. A man who risks his life in shooting big game in order to secure good specimens for natural history collections, or to rid a district of a man-eater or other dangerous neighbor, is a sportsman in the true sense. - Robert Baden-Powell

5. There's a lot of work that goes into it - if you think about how many collections a year that Karl Lagerfeld has to do, with Chanel and all the other things he does - you can't do that unless you are working 18 hours a day. It's really a lot of hard, hard work. - Penelope Cruz

6. My favorite short stories are by Alice Munro, especially her collections 'Carried Away' and 'Runaway.' - Hillary Clinton

7. There are some areas of the world, and some areas in America, where people love full jewelry suites. That's never been something that I've gravitated toward, but I will create special collections for people who like that. - Ivanka Trump

8. Instagram is my favorite! It's interactive and a fun way to stay connected to my friends, family and fans. I love posting photos from family trips, property visits, previews of my collections, everything! - Ivanka Trump

9. Audiences don't come to theatres going by reviews. Even if a film is rated low, the collections won't get affected. - Akkineni Nagarjuna.

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: Which search engine is popular amongst mice?
A: Ask Cheese.
* * *
Q: What did the cheese say after escaping the mouse?
A: I'm Brieeee.
* * *
Q: What did the cheese say to the other cheese?
A: I smell something swiss-picious!
* * *
Q: What kind of cheese do rodents like?
A: Mousearella.
* * *
Q: When should you keep an eye on your cheese?
A: When it's up to no Gouda.
* * *

Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Density

Gist

Density is the measure of how much mass is packed into a given volume, calculated by dividing an object's mass by its volume, with common units being kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m^3) or grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³). It tells you how compact or heavy a substance feels for its size, with denser materials like lead having tightly packed particles, while less dense materials like Styrofoam have sparse particles and can even float on denser liquids, as seen with pumice.

In simple words, density is how much "stuff" (mass) is packed into a certain amount of space (volume). Think of it as how compact or heavy something feels for its size: a brick is dense (lots of mass in a small space), while a sponge is not very dense (less mass in the same space).

Summary

Density is mass of a unit volume of a material substance. The formula for density is d = M/V, where d is density, M is mass, and V is volume. Density is commonly expressed in units of grams per cubic centimetre. For example, the density of water is 1 gram per cubic centimetre, and Earth’s density is 5.51 grams per cubic centimetre. Density can also be expressed as kilograms per cubic metre (in metre-kilogram-second or SI units). For example, the density of air is 1.2 kilograms per cubic metre. The densities of common solids, liquids, and gases are listed in textbooks and handbooks. Density offers a convenient means of obtaining the mass of a body from its volume or vice versa; the mass is equal to the volume multiplied by the density (M = Vd), while the volume is equal to the mass divided by the density (V = M/d). The weight of a body, which is usually of more practical interest than its mass, can be obtained by multiplying the mass by the acceleration of gravity. Tables that list the weight per unit volume of substances are also available; this quantity has various titles, such as weight density, specific weight, or unit weight. See also specific gravity. The expression particle density refers to the number of particles per unit volume, not to the density of a single particle, and it is usually expressed as n.

Density applications are widespread, from making ships float (by controlling overall density with air) and submarines dive (filling ballast tanks with water) to separating oil from water and identifying substances. It's crucial in engineering for building design, determining fluid behavior (buoyancy, aerodynamics), creating life vests (low density), and even in medical diagnostics and quality control for fuels and beverages, helping to determine purity and composition.

Details

Density is mass per unit volume.

For a pure substance, the density is equal to its mass concentration. Different materials usually have different densities, and density may be relevant to buoyancy, purity and packaging. Osmium is the densest known element at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.

To simplify comparisons of density across different systems of units, it is sometimes replaced by the dimensionless quantity "relative density" or "specific gravity", i.e. the ratio of the density of the material to that of a standard material, usually water. Thus a relative density less than one relative to water means that the substance floats in water.

The density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. This variation is typically small for solids and liquids but much greater for gases. Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and thus increases its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance while maintaining a constant pressure decreases its density by increasing its volume (with a few exceptions). In most fluids, heating the bottom of the fluid results in convection due to the decrease in the density of the heated fluid, which causes it to rise relative to denser unheated material.

The reciprocal of the density of a substance is occasionally called its specific volume, a term sometimes used in thermodynamics. Density is an intensive property in that increasing the amount of a substance does not increase its density; rather it increases its mass.

Other conceptually comparable quantities or ratios include specific density, relative density (specific gravity), and specific weight.

The concept of mass density is generalized in the International System of Quantities to volumic quantities, the quotient of any physical quantity and volume, such as charge density or volumic electric charge.

Additional Information

Density is a measurement that compares the amount of matter an object has to its volume. An object with much matter in a certain volume has high density. An object with little matter in the same amount of volume has a low density. Density is found by dividing the mass of an object by its volume:

rho = m/V

where ρ is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume.

Changes of density

In general, density can be changed by changing either the pressure or the temperature. Increasing the pressure always increases the density of a material. Increasing the temperature usually lowers the density, but there are exceptions. For example, the density of water increases slightly between its melting point at 0 °C and 4 °C. When water freezes, it expands by about 9% in volume, making ice that is less dense than liquid water. Water expands as it drops below 4 °C.

Jai Ganesh · Dark Discussions at Cafe Infinity

Collection Quotes - II

1. A museum has to renew its collection to be alive, but that does not mean we give on important old works. - David Rockefeller

2. The cold, commercial word 'market' disguises its human character - a market is a collection of our aspirations, exertions, choices and desires. - Rupert Murdoch

3. I am making a collection of the things my opponents have found me to be and, when this election is over, I am going to open a museum and put them on display. - Lyndon B. Johnson

4. The art galleries of Paris contain the finest collection of frames I ever saw. - Humphry Davy

5. I made a specific choice not to call my collection Ivanka. There's so much value in the Trump name. And there's such a deep connection to luxury and success. - Ivanka Trump

6. Whether it's color palettes for my apparel collection or materials for handbags and shoes or inspiration for fine jewelry, traveling expands your mind and opens you up to different things you haven't seen before. - Ivanka Trump.

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

Petrology

Gist

Petrology is the branch of geology that studies rocks, focusing on their composition, texture, structure, origin, and the conditions under which they form and transform, covering the three main types: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Petrologists analyze rocks to understand Earth's history, geological processes like volcanism and mountain building, and even conditions on other planets, using field studies and lab techniques like microscopy (petrography) and experimental synthesis.

Petrology is the scientific study of rocks, delving into their origin, composition (minerals), texture, structure, occurrence, distribution, and formation processes, covering igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks to understand Earth's history and dynamic systems. It's a core part of geology, using techniques like microscopy to examine rocks and minerals to answer fundamental questions about Earth's crust, mantle, and other planetary bodies.

Summary

Petrology is the scientific study of rocks that deals with their composition, texture, and structure; their occurrence and distribution; and their origin in relation to physicochemical conditions and geologic processes. It is concerned with all three major types of rocks—igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. Petrology includes the subdisciplines of experimental petrology and petrography. Experimental petrology involves the laboratory synthesis of rocks for the purpose of ascertaining the physical and chemical conditions under which rock formation occurs. Petrography is the study of rocks in thin section by means of a petrographic microscope (i.e., an instrument that employs polarized light that vibrates in a single plane). Petrography is primarily concerned with the systematic classification and precise description of rocks.

Petrology relies heavily on the principles and methods of mineralogy because most rocks consist of minerals and are formed under the same conditions. Also essential to petrological research is the careful mapping and sampling of rock units, which provide data on regional gradations of rock types and on associations unavailable by other means.

Details

Petrology (from Ancient Greek (pétros) 'rock' and (-logía) 'study of') is the branch of geology that studies rocks, their mineralogy, composition, texture, structure and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous and metamorphic petrology are commonly taught together because both make heavy use of chemistry, chemical methods, and phase diagrams. Sedimentary petrology is commonly taught together with stratigraphy because it deals with the processes that form sedimentary rock. Modern sedimentary petrology is making increasing use of chemistry.

Background

Lithology was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current usage, lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale description of rocks while petrography is the speciality that deals with microscopic details.

In the petroleum industry, lithology, or more specifically mud logging, is the graphic representation of geological formations being drilled through and drawn on a log called a mud log. As the cuttings are circulated out of the borehole, they are sampled, examined (typically under a 10× microscope) and tested chemically when needed.

Methodology

Petrology utilizes the fields of mineralogy, petrography, optical mineralogy, and chemical analysis to describe the composition and texture of rocks. Petrologists also include the principles of geochemistry and geophysics through the study of geochemical trends and cycles and the use of thermodynamic data and experiments in order to better understand the origins of rocks.

Branches

There are three branches of petrology, corresponding to the three types of rocks: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary, and another dealing with experimental techniques:

* Igneous petrology focuses on the composition and texture of igneous rocks (rocks such as granite or basalt which have crystallized from molten rock or magma). Igneous rocks include volcanic and plutonic rocks.
* Sedimentary petrology focuses on the composition and texture of sedimentary rocks (rocks such as sandstone, shale, or limestone which consist of pieces or particles derived from other rocks or biological or chemical deposits, and are usually bound together in a matrix of finer material).
* Metamorphic petrology focuses on the composition and texture of metamorphic rocks (rocks such as slate, marble, gneiss, or schist) which have undergone chemical, mineralogical or textural changes due to the effects of pressure, temperature, or both). The original rock, prior to change (called the protolith), may be of any sort.
* Experimental petrology employs high-pressure, high-temperature apparatus to investigate the geochemistry and phase relations of natural or synthetic materials at elevated pressures and temperatures. Experiments are particularly useful for investigating rocks of the lower crust and upper mantle that rarely survive the journey to the surface in pristine condition. They are also one of the prime sources of information about completely inaccessible rocks, such as those in the Earth's lower mantle and in the mantles of the other terrestrial planets and the Moon. The work of experimental petrologists has laid a foundation on which modern understanding of igneous and metamorphic processes has been built.

Additional Information

Petrology is the study of the macroscopic and microscopic mineralogical and chemical composition of rocks. In addition to assessing sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks that are accessible at the surface, experimental petrology aims to create high pressure and temperature conditions to investigate what rock types may exist in the Earth’s subsurface.

Jai Ganesh · Exercises

Hi,

2677.

Jai Ganesh · Science HQ

Kidney stone

Gist

Kidney stones form when urine becomes too concentrated with minerals like calcium, oxalate, and uric acid, causing crystals to form and clump together, often due to dehydration, high-salt/sugar/animal protein diets, obesity, certain medications, digestive issues (like IBD), family history, or conditions like diabetes and gout. Lack of fluids to dilute these substances creates an environment where stones can develop, with calcium oxalate stones being the most common type. (IBD : Inflammatory Bowel Disease)

Summary

Kidney stone disease is a crystal concretion formed usually within the kidneys. It is an increasing urological disorder of human health, affecting about 12% of the world population. It has been associated with an increased risk of end-stage renal failure. The etiology of kidney stone is multifactorial. The most common type of kidney stone is calcium oxalate formed at Randall's plaque on the renal papillary surfaces. The mechanism of stone formation is a complex process which results from several physicochemical events including supersaturation, nucleation, growth, aggregation, and retention of urinary stone constituents within tubular cells. These steps are modulated by an imbalance between factors that promote or inhibit urinary crystallization. It is also noted that cellular injury promotes retention of particles on renal papillary surfaces. The exposure of renal epithelial cells to oxalate causes a signaling cascade which leads to apoptosis by p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Currently, there is no satisfactory drug to cure and/or prevent kidney stone recurrences. Thus, further understanding of the pathophysiology of kidney stone formation is a research area to manage urolithiasis using new drugs.

Details

Kidney stone disease or urinary stone disease is a crystallopathy that occurs when there are too many minerals in the urine and not enough liquid or hydration. This imbalance causes tiny pieces of crystal to aggregate and form hard masses, or calculi (stones) in the upper urinary tract. Because renal calculi typically form in the kidney, if small enough, they are able to leave the urinary tract via the urine stream. A small calculus may pass without causing symptoms. However, if a stone grows to more than 5 millimeters (0.2 inches), it can cause a blockage of the ureter, resulting in extremely sharp and severe pain (renal colic) in the lower back that often radiates downward to the groin. A calculus may also result in blood in the urine, vomiting (due to severe pain), swelling of the kidney, or painful urination. About half of all people who have had a kidney stone are likely to develop another within ten years.

Most calculi form by a combination of genetics and environmental factors. Risk factors include high urine calcium levels, obesity, certain foods, some medications, calcium supplements, gout, hyperparathyroidism, and not drinking enough fluids. Calculi form in the kidney when minerals in urine are at high concentrations. The diagnosis is usually based on symptoms, urine testing, and medical imaging. Blood tests may also be useful. Calculi are typically classified by their location, being referred to medically as nephrolithiasis (in the kidney), ureterolithiasis (in the ureter), or cystolithiasis (in the bladder). Calculi are also classified by what they are made of, such as from calcium oxalate, uric acid, struvite, or cystine.

In those who have had renal calculi, drinking fluids, especially water, is a way to prevent them. Drinking fluids such that more than two liters of urine are produced per day is recommended. If fluid intake alone is not effective to prevent renal calculi, the medications thiazide diuretic, citrate, or allopurinol may be suggested. Soft drinks containing phosphoric acid (typically colas) should be avoided. When a calculus causes no symptoms, no treatment is needed. For those with symptoms, pain control is usually the first measure, using medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or opioids. Larger calculi may be helped to pass with the medication tamsulosin, or may require procedures for removal such as extracorporeal shockwave therapy (ESWT), laser lithotripsy (LL), or a percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL).

Renal calculi have affected humans throughout history with a description of surgery to remove them dating from as early as 600 BC in ancient India by Sushruta. Between 1% and 15% of people globally are affected by renal calculi at some point in their lives. In 2015, 22.1 million cases occurred, resulting in about 16,100 deaths. They have become more common in the Western world since the 1970s. Generally, more men are affected than women, mainly between the ages of 40 and 60. The prevalence and incidence of the disease rises worldwide and continues to be challenging for patients, physicians, and healthcare systems alike. In this context, epidemiological studies are striving to elucidate the worldwide changes in the patterns and the burden of the disease and identify modifiable risk factors that contribute to the development of renal calculi.

Signs and symptoms

The hallmark of a stone that obstructs the ureter or renal pelvis is excruciating, intermittent pain that radiates from the flank to the groin or to the inner thigh. This is due to the transfer of referred pain signals from the lower thoracic splanchnic nerves to the lumbar splanchnic nerves as the stone passes down from the kidney or proximal ureter to the distal ureter. This pain, known as renal colic, is often described as one of the strongest pain sensations known. Renal colic caused by kidney stones is commonly accompanied by urinary urgency, restlessness, frequent urination, blood in the urine, sweating, nausea, and vomiting. It typically comes in waves lasting 20 to 60 minutes caused by peristaltic contractions of the ureter as it attempts to expel the stone.

The embryological link between the urinary tract, the genital system, and the gastrointestinal tract is the basis of the radiation of pain to the gonads, as well as the nausea and vomiting that are also common in urolithiasis. Postrenal azotemia and hydronephrosis can be observed following the obstruction of urine flow through one or both ureters.

Pain in the lower-left quadrant can sometimes be confused with diverticulitis because the sigmoid colon overlaps the ureter, and the exact location of the pain may be difficult to isolate due to the proximity of these two structures.

Additional Information

Kidney stones are clusters of crystals that form from minerals and other substances in your urinary tract. Most stones pass out of your body in your pee on their own, but they can be very painful as they move through. You might need a procedure to break up or remove the stone if it can’t pass on its own or is causing a blockage.

Kidney stones are solid masses or crystals that form from substances (like minerals, acids and salts) in your kidneys. They can be as small as a grain of sand or — rarely — larger than a golf ball. Kidney stones are also called renal calculi or nephrolithiasis.

Depending on the size of your kidney stone (or stones), you may not even realize that you have one. Smaller stones can pass through your urinary tract in your pee with no symptoms. Large kidney stones can get trapped in your ureter (the tube that drains urine from your kidney down to your bladder). This can cause pee to back up and limit your kidney’s ability to filter waste from your body. It can also cause bleeding.

It can take as long as three weeks for kidney stones to pass on their own. Even some small stones can cause extreme pain as they go through your urinary tract and out of your body. You may need a provider to break up and remove a stone that can’t pass on its own.

How common are kidney stones?

About 1 in 10 people will get a kidney stone during their lifetime. They’re most common in men in their 30s and 40s. They’re also more common among non-Hispanic white people.

Symptoms and Causes:

What are the symptoms of kidney stones?

The most common symptom of kidney stones is pain in your lower back, belly or side (flank pain). It might feel like it extends from your groin to your side. It can be a dull pain or sharp and severe. It’s sometimes called colicky pain because it can get worse in waves.

Other kidney stone symptoms include:

* Nausea and vomiting.
* Bloody pee.
* Pain when you pee.
* Inability to pee.
* Feeling the urge to pee a lot.
* Fever or chills.
* Cloudy or foul-smelling pee.

Smaller kidney stones may not cause pain or other symptoms.

What causes kidney stones?

Your pee contains minerals, acids and other substances, like calcium, sodium, oxalate and uric acid. When you have too many particles of these substances in your pee and too little liquid, they can start to stick together, forming crystals or stones. Kidney stones can form over months or years.

Types of kidney stones

Stones are named for the type of crystals they’re made up of:

* Calcium-oxalate and calcium phosphate stones. Calcium-based stones can form when you eat high-oxalate or low-calcium foods and aren’t drinking enough fluids. Calcium-oxalate stones are the most common type of kidney stones.
* Uric acid stones. Eating animal proteins (beef, poultry, pork, eggs and fish) can cause uric acid stones to form.
* Struvite stones. Bacterial infections can cause struvite stones. Repeated infections can lead to a staghorn calculus, a very large kidney stone that usually needs to be surgically removed.
* Cystine stones. An inherited condition called cystinuria causes cystine stones. Cystine is a substance made of two cysteine amino acids bound together.

What are the risk factors for kidney stones?

You might be at a higher risk of developing kidney stones if you:

* Don’t drink enough fluids.
* Eat meat and other protein-rich foods.
* Eat foods high in sodium or sugars (sucrose and fructose).
* Take vitamin C supplements.
* Have a family history of kidney stones.
* Have a blockage in your urinary tract.
* Have had stomach or intestine surgery, including gastric bypass surgery.
* Take certain medications. This includes some diuretics, calcium-based antacids, some antiseizure medications.
* Have certain medical conditions.

Medical conditions that increase kidney stone risk

Certain health conditions can put you at a higher risk for kidney stones. These include:

* Cystic fibrosis.
* Cystinuria, a genetic disorder that causes a buildup of cystine.
* Diabetes.
* Gout.
* High blood pressure.
* High calcium levels in your urine (hypercalciuria).
* Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
* Kidney cysts.
* Obesity.
* Osteoporosis.
* Parathyroid disease.
* Primary hyperoxaluria.
* Hemiplegia or paraplegia (types of paralysis).

Z7YOIZ7c43Q3f-uV_KidneyStones2.jpeg?auto=format%2Ccompress&fit=max&w=3840

Jai Ganesh · Jokes

Q: When should you go on a cheese diet?
A: If you need to cheddar a few pounds.
* * *
Q: What is a cannibal's favourite cheese?
A: Limburger.
* * *
Q: What do you call an anorexic woman with a yeast infection?
A: A Quarter Ponder with Cheese.
* * *
Q: Did you hear about the cheese failed to medal at the olympics?
A: It fell at the final curdle.
* * *
Q: Why did the dairy farmer go on a diet?
A: She wanted to cheddar a few pounds!
* * *

Jai Ganesh · This is Cool

2468) Ant

Gist

Ants are incredibly strong, social insects with diverse roles in colonies, using chemical signals for communication, farming aphids and fungi, having two stomachs for food sharing, and "hearing" through ground vibrations rather than ears, existing as ancient creatures found almost everywhere except Antarctica, with some species forming massive global supercolonies.

An ant, from the family Formicidae, is a highly social insect living in organized colonies, known for cooperative behavior, clear labor division, and significant ecological roles, with over 10,000 species found globally, thriving in diverse habitats and exhibiting complex behaviors like farming aphids or hunting prey. These insects, related to wasps and bees (order Hymenoptera), have three body parts (head, thorax, abdomen) with elbowed antennae and powerful jaws, evolving from wasp ancestors, with a life cycle of egg, larva, pupa, and adult, often producing winged males/queens for mating.

Summary

Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period. More than 13,800 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified. They are easily identified by their geniculate (elbowed) antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists.

Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen individuals often living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies that may occupy large territories with a sizeable nest (or nests) that consist of millions of individuals, in some cases they reach hundreds of millions of individuals in super colonies. Typical colonies consist of various castes of sterile, wingless females, most of which are workers (ergates), as well as soldiers (dinergates) and other specialised groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called "drones" and one or more fertile females called "queens" (gynes). The colonies are described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony.

Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands. Ants thrive in moist tropical ecosystems and may exceed the combined biomass of wild birds and mammals. Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships.

Ant societies have division of labour, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems. These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study. Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication, and rites. Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents. Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans, however, as they can damage crops and invade buildings. Some species, such as the red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) of South America, are regarded as invasive species in other parts of the world, establishing themselves in areas where they have been introduced accidentally.

Details

An ant, (family Formicidae), is any of approximately 10,000 species of insects that are social in habit and live together in organized colonies. Ants occur worldwide but are most numerous, both in numbers and in species, in tropical and subtropical regions. Ants are essential members of the ecosystems they inhabit, and some even serve as keystone species that have a disproportionately large effect on their ecological communities. Some ants are considered pests to humans, and a number are invasive species in areas outside their native ranges.

Physical description

Ants range in size from about 2 to 25 mm (about 0.08 to 1 inch). Their color is usually yellow, brown, red, or black. A few genera (e.g., Pheidole of North America) have a metallic luster.

Typically, an ant has a large head and a slender, oval abdomen joined to the thorax, or midsection, by a small waist. In all ants there are either one or two finlike extensions running across the thin waist region. The antennae are always elbowed. There are two sets of jaws: the outer pair is used for carrying objects such as food and for digging, and the inner pair is used for chewing. Some species, such as the debilitating bullet ant (Paraponera clavata), have a powerful sting at the tip of the abdomen.

Natural history

Ants are social insects, and the colony is a family community of which every ant is an integral unit. Apart from the community, any one individual cannot properly function or survive, and the larvae are completely dependent upon the continuous care of the adults. There are generally three castes, or classes, within a colony: queens, males, and workers. Male ants play no part in everyday nest activities. They live only for a short time, occur in limited numbers, and are virtual parasites of the colony, which must feed them. The fertile female, the queen, performs only one task: egg laying. The life cycle of the ant has four stages—egg, larva, pupa, and adult—and typically spans a period of 8 to 10 weeks for worker ants.

At certain times of the year, the winged males and virgin queens fly into the air, where the queen mates with a single male. During the flight he transfers to her seminal receptacle all the sperm she will require for the rest of her life, which may be as long as 15 years. The males die soon afterward, and the fertilized queen establishes a new nest or takes over the current nest. Her wings then drop off, and the bulky wing muscles degenerate, providing nutritive materials from the breakdown of the muscle tissue. As soon as the wings have fallen, her ovaries become functional, and egg laying begins. In primitive species, the queen leaves the nest and forages for food for the larvae. In more advanced forms, the queen rarely leaves the nest. She feeds so-called nutrition eggs or other food stores within her own body to the first brood. The larvae that survive in the nest develop into dwarf workers, which forage outside the nest for food to nourish additional larvae.

The essential work in the ant society—such as building the nest, feeding and tending the brood, and defending the nest—is performed by the workers, all of whom are female. The workers can be differentiated morphologically and physiologically as soldiers, outside workers, inside workers, and nest builders. In the division of labor among some ant forms, highly specialized types of polymorphism have developed. The Cryptocercus ants, for example, make nests in hollow stems of plants, then bore a circular entrance that remains under constant surveillance by special guards whose heads are modified into pluglike structures that fit the entrance. Each guard is relieved after several hours, and another guard takes its place; entrance guards are useless for other tasks. Honey ant repletes are a special type of worker that are fed so much that the size of their abdomens is greatly increased. Unable to walk, they hang as living honey jugs from the ceiling of the nest, to be used as a food source when fresh food is scarce.

Most ants live in nests, which may be located in the ground or under a rock or built aboveground and made of twigs, sand, or gravel. Many subterranean nests are quite extensive, with a multitude of tunnels and specialized chambers. Carpenter ants (Camponotus) are large black ants common in North America that live in old logs and timbers. Some species live in trees or in the hollow stems of weeds. Weaver ants (genus Oecophylla), found in the tropics of Africa and Asia, make nests of leaves and similar materials held together with silk secreted by the larvae. Dolichoderus, a genus of ants that are found worldwide, glues together bits of animal feces for its nest. The widely distributed pharaoh ant (Monomarium pharaonis), a small yellowish insect, builds its nest either in houses, when found in cool climates, or outdoors, when it occurs in warm climates.

Food

The food of ants consists of both plant and animal substances. Many ants are generalists and utilize a wide range of organic substances for food. Worker ants forage daily, and collected food and water is brought to the larvae and mature ants in the nest. They frequently use scent marks, which they place on their pathways, to find their way back to the nest and direct other colony members to a food source.

Some ant species are hunters and scavengers. Bullet ants, for example, forage for live spiders, frogs, and insects, including grasshoppers, beetles, and katydids, or their carcasses. Certain species, including those of the genus Formica, often eat the eggs and larvae of other ants or those of their own species in other nests. Sahara desert ants (genus Cataglyphis) scavenge for dead insects on the scorching sand and salt-pan terrain of the Sahara; they can tolerate surface temperatures of 60 °C (140 °F) or higher for short periods, making them one of the most heat-tolerant groups of insects known.

Some species eat the liquid secretions of plants, either directly or indirectly from the bodies of other insects. Many ants collect nectar from floral or extrafloral nectaries, and some utilize resins and saps. A number of ants, known as herder ants (Lasius niger and others), protect and carefully tend to herds of aphids, from which the ants collect honeydew (a by-product of digestion secreted by certain aphids). The honey ants (Myrmecocystus, Camponotus, and others) store honeydew in the distended abdomens of specialized workers. Some genera (Leptothorax) eat the honeydew that has fallen onto the surface of a leaf. The so-called Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex humilis) and many fire ants (Solenopsis) also eat honeydew.

Harvester ants (Messor, Pogonomyrmex) store grass, seeds, or berries in the nest, whereas ants of the genus Trachymyrmex of South America eat only fungi, which they cultivate in their nests. The Texas leafcutter ant (Atta texana) is a pest that often strips the leaves from plants to provide nourishment for its fungus gardens.

Notable ant behaviors

The social behavior of ants, along with that of honeybees, is the most complex in the insect world. The group is also extremely diverse, with any number of foraging, nesting, and social behaviors.

Acacia ants (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) inhabit the bullhorn acacia (or bullhorn wattle; Vachellia cornigera). The ants obtain food and shelter, and the acacia depends on the ants for protection from browsing animals, which the ants drive away. Neither member can survive successfully without the other, exemplifying obligative mutualism.

Slave-making ants, of which there are many species, have a variety of methods for “enslaving” the ants of other species. The queen of Bothriomyrmex decapitans of Africa, for example, allows herself to be dragged by Tapinoma ants into their nest. She then bites off the head of the Tapinoma queen and begins laying her own eggs, which are cared for by the “enslaved” Tapinoma workers. Workers of the slave-making ant Protomognathus americanus raid nests of Temnothorax ants, stealing the latter’s pupae. The pupae are raised by P. americanus to serve as slaves, and, because the Temnothorax pupae become imprinted on the chemical odor of the slave-making ants, as adults the captive ants forage and routinely return to the slave-making ant nest.

Some species live in the nests of other species as parasites. In these species the parasite larvae are given food and nourishment by the host workers. Wheeleriella santschii is a parasite in the nests of Monomorium salomonis, the most common ant of northern Africa.

Army ants, of the subfamily Dorylinae, are nomadic and notorious for the destruction of plant and animal life in their path. The army ants of tropical America (Eciton), for example, travel in columns, eating insects and other invertebrates along the way. Periodically, the colony rests for several days while the queen lays her eggs. As the colony travels, the growing larvae are carried along by the workers. Habits of the African driver ant (Dorylus) are similar.

All of the nearly 300 members of the subtribe Attina, including certain species of the genera Atta, Acromyrmex, Cyphomyrmex, Sericomyrmex, and Trachymyrmex, are farmers that intentionally cultivate fungi in their colonies to consume as food. One of the most well-known of these mutualisms is that of the leafcutter ant (Atta cephalotes), which has evolved a highly developed and intricate farming system for a specific fungus, Leucoagaricus gongylophorus. The ants meticulously cut pieces of leaves from a variety of rainforest plants to bring back to special chambers in their underground nests. The leaves are then chewed into a pulp and serve as a substrate for the fungus. As the fungal crop grows, the worker ants weed out any competing fungi to protect their harvest and utilize antimicrobial substances to inhibit the growth of harmful pathogens. In return for this care, the fungus converts the pulped vegetation into food that sustains the entire ant colony, producing specialized cells (called gongylidia) that are consumed by the ant farmers. Given that the fungus completely relies on ants for its perpetuation and is not found on its own in the wild, some scientists describe it as an ant-domesticated species.

Additional Information

1. There are over 12,000 ant species worldwide:

Ranging from the ant you might find scuttling across your picnic to the ants building underground fortresses in the rainforest, to flying ants!

2. The bullet ant is said to have the most painful sting in the world!

Living in humid jungle conditions such as the Amazon, their sting has been compared to being hit by a bullet – ouch!

3. Fire ants cause over £3 billion worth of damage a year!

North America’s red imported fire ant might only be little, but the tiny critters have a painful bite which causes a burning sensation – hence the name “fire ant”, which costs the US millions in veterinary and medical bills every year! They’ve also been known to cause damage to farmer’s crops.

4. Ants are the longest living insects

Unlike some bugs who might only live for days or even hours, the queen ant of one particular species – the Pogonomyrmex Owyheei – can live up to 30 years – so be careful not to stand on her!

5. The ant is one of the world’s strongest creatures in relation to its size

A single ant can carry 50 times its own bodyweight, and they’ll even work together to move bigger objects as a group!

6. Ants hold the record for the fastest movement in the animal kingdom
The aptly named species of trap jaw ant, can close its jaws at 140mph, which it uses to kill its prey or injure predators. Image if that bit you on the bum!

7. Ants can be found on every single continent except Antarctica

Ironic really, when you consider the name…

8. Ants are social insects which live in colonies

The colony, also called a formicary, is made up of one or more egg-laying queens and a large amount of female “worker” ants who tend to her, build and maintain the nest, forage for food and care for the young.

Male ants have wings and their only function is to mate with the queen.

9. Ants don’t have ears, and some of them don’t have eyes!

Ants “listen” by feeling vibrations from the ground through their feet, and eye-less ants such as the driver ant species can communicate by using their antennae!

Plus, they can send chemical signals (called pheremones) released through their body to send messages to other ants! They send out warnings when danger’s near, leave trails of pheremones leading to food sources and even use them to attract a mate – a sort of ant love potion!

10. The largest ant’s nest ever found was over 3,700 miles wide!

Found in Argentina in 2000, the ginormous colony housed 33 ant populations which had merged into one giant supercolony, with millions of nests and billions of workers!

Jai Ganesh · Exercises

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